BRITTLE  PAPES  - 
HANDLE  WITH  CARE 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL 


STUDY 


OF 


CLARK  COUNTY,  OHIO 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  IN 

THE  FACULTY  OF  POLITICAL  SCIENCE, 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


BY 


EDWIN   SMITH   TODD 


1904 


• 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL 


STUDY 


OF 


CLARK  COUNTY,  OHIO 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  IN 

THE  FACULTY  OF  POLITICAL  SCIENCE, 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


BY 

EDWIN    SMITH   TODD 


1904 


SPRIHCFIELD    PUBLISHING   CO., 
PRINTERS.  SPRINGFIELD,  OHIO. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I. 
The  History  of  Clark  County. 


PAGE 


PREFACE  4 

CHAPTER  I.       Physical   Features    5 

CHAPTER  II.     History  Proper — 

1.  Aboriginal   Inhabitants    9 

2.  Present  Inhabitants    .  10 


PART  II. 

Existing  Elements,   Organization  and   Conditions. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.     Social   Population — 

1.  Artificial  Features  of  the  County 20 

2.  Artificial  Features  of  the  City 24 

3.  Social  Composition    27 

(a.)     General  Population   27 

(b.)     Age  Classes   31 

(c.)     Population  by  Sex 32 

(d.)     Native  and  Foreign  Born 33 

Native  and  Foreign  Born  by  Sex 34 

Native  White  of  Native  Parents 35 

Native  White  of  Foreign  Parents 36 

Population  and  Place  of  Birth. 37 

Birthplace  of  Foreign  Born 38 

Foreign   Parentage    39 

(e.)     Population  by  color 41 

Population  by  Color  and  Sex  43 


PAGE 

4.    Growth  of  Population  by  Genetic  Aggregation ....  47 

(a.)     General 47 

(b.)     Birth  Rate  by  Sex  5° 

(c.)     Birth  Rate  by  Color   5° 

(d.)     Death  Rates   53 

(e.)     Deaths  by  Age  Classes  55 

(f. )     Comparison  of  Birth  and  Death  Rates 57 

CHAPTER  II.     The  Social  Mind — 

1.  The  County  60 

2.  The  City   65 

CHAPTER  III.     Social  Organization — 

1.  The  County    72 

(a.)     Marriages  and  Conjugal  Condition   72 

Divorce  • • • • 74 

(b.)     Dwellings 76 

(c.)     Population  by  Occupation  Groups   77 

(d.)     Males  of  Militia  Age 78 

(e.)     Voting  Population   78 

2.  Springfield   79 

3.  Private   Associations    82 

(a.)     Cultural   Associations    82 

Religious  Associations  83 

(b.)  Economic  Associations  87 

Labor  Unions 88 

(c.)  Associations  with  a  Moral  Purpose  90 

(d.)  Political  Associations 91 

CHAPTER  IV.     The   Social   Welfare — 

1.  Economic   94 

2.  Cultural    100 

(a.)     Illiteracy    104 

3.  Vitality   Classes    104 

4.  Defective  Classes    105 

5.  Morality  and  Sociality  Classes  106 

6.  The  Desocialized    109 

7.  Conclusion   m 


PRE  FAC  E 

The  materials  for  the  preparation  of  this  study  are  few  in 
number  and  fragmentary. 

For  the  subject  matter  of  Part  I,  the  writer  has  used  the 
following  sources :  "A  Sketch  of  the  City  of  Springfield,"  by  the 
town  librarian,  R.  C.  Woodward.  It  was  published  about  thirty 
years  ago  and  is  very  short  and  fragmentary.  "A  History  of 
Clark  County"  ( 1880).  This  volume  consists  chiefly  of  biograph- 
ical sketches.  "The  Centennial  of  Springfield,"  1901.  This  vol- 
ume, edited  by  Prof.  B.  F.  Prince,  is  made  up  of  reports  and  papers 
given  on  the  occasion  of  the  celebration  of  the  centenary  of  the 
founding  of  Springfield.  The  chief  sources  of  information  have 
been  the  files  of  the  local  newspapers  dating  back  to  1820,  and 
personal  interviews  with  leading  citizens. 

The  material  for  Part  II  has  been  obtained  from  personal 
observations,  city  and  county  records,  and  United  States  Census 
Reports. 

This  particular  county  has  been  chosen  as  a  subject  for  study 
not  only  for  its  sake  alone,  but  also  because  it  is  typical  of  the 
whole  Miami  Valley ;  and  whatever  may  be  said  of  existing  physi- 
cal and  social  conditions  in  Clark  County  may  be  as  well  applied 
to  the  whole  of  the  region  drained  by  the  Great  and  Little  Miami 
Rivers. 


PART  I.    HISTORY 

CHAPTER   1.     PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

The  Miami  Valley  is  situated  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Ohio,  and  is  formed  "by  the  courses  of  the  Great  and  Little  Miami 
Rivers ;  the  one  to  the  west  of  the  valley  emptying  into  the  Ohio 
near  the  Indiana  boundary  line ;  the  other  flowing  into  the  Ohio  at 
Cincinnati.  The  valley  includes  the  present  cities  of  Cincinnati, 
Hamilton,  Dayton,  Xenia,  Springfield,  Troy,  Urbana  and  Belle- 
fontaine.  Clark  County  is  situated  in  the  northwestern  portion  of 
this,  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  regions  in  the  world. 

The  county  is  situated  in  latitude  39  deg.,  50  min.,  N.,  and 
longitude  6  deg.  45  min.,  W.  (of  Washington).  The  county  is 
twenty-nine  miles  long,  east  and  west,  and  seventeen  miles  wide, 
north  and  south,  and  contains  412  square  miles.  The  northern 
and  western  boundary  lines  are  straight  and  regular,  coinciding 
with  township  and  section  lines ;  the  eastern  boundary  is  a  straight 
line  bearing  several  degrees  east  of  north ;  the  southern  boundary 
is  broken  and  irregular. 

The  geological  history  of  Ohio  reaches  back  to  the  lower 
Silurian  age.  The  western  portion  of  the  county  is  formed  by 
the  blue  limestone  of  the  Cincinnati  group.  A  very  narrow  strip 
of  Clinton  rock  separates  the  Cincinnati  group  from  the  Niagara 
group,  which  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  county.  The 
Niagara  group  belongs  to  the  upper  Silurian  system  and  consists 
mainly  of  limestone.  This  group  is  rich  in  fossiliferous  remains. 

The  stone  found  in  the  region  is  called  "Springfield  Stone," 
and  is  a  rich  magnesian-carbonate,  containing  approximately  fifty 
per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  forty  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of 
magnesia.  The  prevailing  color  is  light  drab;  the  drab  stone  is 
almost  all  durable  building  stone.  The  Springfield  lime  is  the 
standard  of  excellence  as  a  finishing  lime  in  the  Cincinnati  market, 
and  finds  its  way  as  far  as  New  Orleans.  There  are  extensive 
quarries  and  limekilns  about  Springfield. 

For  the  most  part  the  rocky  floor  of  the  county  is  covered 
with  deposits  of  drift  often  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in 
depth.  The  present  surface  of  the  county  is  quite  irregular ;  the 


6  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

highest  land  is  in  the  eastern  portion,  and  is  from  1,025  to  1,050 
feet  above  tide  water;  the  lowest  land  is  in  the  southwestern 
portion,  about  360  feet  above  tide  water. 

The  great  valleys  of  the  rivers  and  creeks  of  the  county  are 
evidences  of  once  great  streams.  Almost  all  of  the  streams  have 
springs  in  the  drift  deposits ;  they  flow  for  awhile  (many  of  them 
through  their  whole  extent)  in  the  broad  and  shallow  valleys 
they  have  wrought  in  the  surface  accumulations  of  clay  and  gravel. 

The  present  topography  of  the  region  is  due  to  the  erosive 
agencies  of  these  streams,  some  portions  being  worn  and  chiseled 
to  a  great  degree.  The  chief  streams  are  Mad  River,  Donnels, 
and  Honey  Creeks ;  and  the  north  and  east  branches  of  the  little 
Miami,  the  two  forks  uniting  near  the  south  central  border  of  the 
county  to  form  the  main  stream. 

Mad  River  enters  the  county  near  the  center  of  the  northern 
boundary  line,  flows  in  a  southwesterly  direction  and  leaves  the 
county  near  the  southwest  corner.  The  borders  of  the  upper 
course  of  the  stream  are  rendered  swampy  by  accumulations  of 
vegetable  matter.  To  this  fact  is  due  the  permanence  of  the 
stream.  Near  Springfield  and  to  the  southwest,  the  stream  flows 
through  cliff  limestone  varying  in  height  from  forty  to  fifty  feet ; 
the  present  river,  however,  occupies  only  a  very  small  portion  of 
the  intervals  between  the  cliffs  for  its  channel,  but  uses  most  of  it 
for  a  flood  plain  in  its  higher  stages.  The  stream  varies  in  depth 
from  four  to  twenty  feet.  The  permanence  of  the  stream,  together 
with  its  rapid  fall,  renders  it  the  most  valuable  mill  stream  in  the 
western  part  of  the  state.  The  tributaries  of  Mad  River  form  a 
network  of  streams  over  the  greater  part  of  the  county.  Two 
of  them,  Donnels  and  Lagonda  (Buck)  Creeks,  have  also  wrought 
out  picturesque  valleys  in  the  cliff  limestone,  the  most  pleasing 
portion  of  which  forms  the  entrance  to  Springfield's  beautiful 
Ferncliff  Cemetery. 

The  branches  of  the  Little  Miami  flow  southward  through  the 
eastern  part  of  the  county.  With  the  exception  of  Mad  River, 
the  streams  of  the  county  are  at  present  uncertain  in  depth  and 
volume,  on  account  of  the  cutting  away  of  forest  areas  and  espe- 
cially to  the  great  amount  of  artificial  drainage.  The  streams 
were  formerly  of  much  greater  volume  and  were  utilized  for  mill 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  " 

purposes;  but  while  the  streams  are  small,  the  valleys  are  broad, 
often  being  a  mile  and  a  half  in  breadth. 

The  drift  formation  is  by  far  the  most  important  geological 
division  of  tHe  county.  The  drift  furnishes  all  of  the  various  soils. 
As  a  result  of  the  first  glacial  epoch  the  floor  of  the  county  was 
covered  with  a  tough  blue  clay,  which  was  finally  converted  into 
soil.  In  the  following  epoch  of  subsidence,  the  materials  of  the 
surface  were  assorted  into  beds  of  sand,  clay,  and  gravel ;  these 
beds  of  clay,  sand,  and  gravel  form  the  most  important  soils  of 
the  county ;  the  yellow  clay  is  due  to  oxidation,  and  the  sand  and 
gravel  to  the  weathering  of  the  clays.  Some  of  the  clay  (Spring- 
field clay)  furnishes  excellent  material  for  bricks  and  tile.  The 
knolls  and  ridges  are  largely  made  up  of  sand  and  gravel ;  while 
the  river  valleys  are  made  up  of  silt  deposits  and  recent  vegetable 
accumulations,  forming  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  regions  in 
the  world. 

As  Prof.  Orton  says,  "The  soil  of  the  county  is  a  mine  from 
which  vast  stores  of  wealth  have  already  been  taken ;  but  in  many 
cases  the  soil  has  been  so  impoverished  by  the  old-fashioned,  un- 
scientific farming  that  nature's  yield  is  not  so  great  as  formerly ; 
and  there  is  a  growing  need  of  the  enrichment  of  the  soil  by  proper 
fertilizers."  In  his  study  of  the  geology  of  the  county  in  1870, 
Prof.  Orton  warned  the  people  of  the  county  of  the  need  of  en- 
riching the  soil,  and  pointed  out  the  value  of  the  waste  material 
from  the  limekilns,  which  were  used  only  for  road  making.  Even 
now  advantage  is  not  taken  of  this  material  near  at  hand  for  the 
enrichment  of  the  soil. 

The  region  was  formerly  covered  with  forests  of  beech,  ma- 
ple, oak,  hickory,  poplar,  walnut,  ash,  elm,  sycamore  and  buckeye. 
According  to  the  state  statistics  some  ten  thousand  acres  of  forest 
have  been  cut  away  during  the  last  thirty  years ;  at  present  there 
are  about  twenty-one  thousand  acres  of  woodland,  or  about  eight 
per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  county.  Probably  not  more  than 
twenty-five  hundred  acres  are  "waste"  land,  or  less  than  one  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  county. 

All  grains  are  grown  in  abundance,  but  the  rich  valleys  are 
especially  adapted  to  wheat  and  corn.  The  climate  is  like  that  of 
all  southern  Ohio,  exceedingly  variable,  and  subject  to  frequent 
and  often  severe  changes. 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  55  deg.,  the  extremes 
varying  from  20  deg.  below  to  96  deg.  above  zero,  F.  The  annual 
rainfall  seems  to  be  more  variable  than  formerly,  and  is  about  40 
inches ;  although  the  mean  annual  rainfall  for  the  last  six  years  has 
only  averaged  32  inches. 

A  region  with  such  physical  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
must  produce  a  marked  effect  upon  the  health  and  habits  of  a 
people  who  live  under  its  influence,  and  such  an  environment  has 
undoubtedly  influenced  the  physical  and  mental  characteristics  of 
the  people  of  the  Miami  Valley. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO. 


CHAPTER  II.    HISTORICAL 

Section  1.    Aboriginal  Inhabitants 

Such  a  region  as  the  Miami  Valley,  rich  in  forests  filled  with 
bear,  deer  and  other  wild  animals,  and  with  streams  abounding 
in  fish,  must  have  attracted  the  attention  of  men  from  the  earliest 
times.  The  valley  was  the  haunt  of  the  mastodon  and  other 
great  animals  of  the  glacial  epoch,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  fre- 
quent discoveries  of  their  remains.  Some  have  asserted  that  the 
region  was  the  residence  of  paleolithic  man,  but  this  is  not  as  yet 
an  established  fact. 

Two  explorations  have  been  made  during  the  past  few  years 
by  Professor  Andrews  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  and  by  Dr. 
Thomas  Wilson,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute.  Dr.  Wilson  sug- 
gests further  explorations  before  we  affirm  or  deny  the  existence 
of  paleolithic  man  in  this  valley.  He  is  of  the  opinion  at  present 
that  the  immediate  predecessors  of  the  Indians  were  the  only  oc- 
cupants of  the  territory  in  past  times. 

The  Little  Miami  Valley  is  famous  for  the  number  of  mounds, 
formerly  attributed  to  the  workmanship  of  the  "Mound  Builders," 
but  now  thought  to  be  of  Indian  origin.  The  most  famous  of 
these  mounds  is  "Fort  Ancient,"  about  forty  miles  south  of  Spring- 
field; Clark  County  contains  forty-one  such  mounds.  According 
to  late  authorities,  twenty-six  of  these  are  earth  mounds,  two  are 
village  sites,  eight  are  "Glacial  Kame  Burial  Mounds,"  two  are 
religious  works,  two  are  circles,  and  one  is  a  group  stone  grave. 

According  to  one  authority,  with  the  exception  of  pieces  of 
pottery,  carved  shells,  etc.,  there  is  no  care  evinced  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  graves,  no  evidence  of  ceremonies  enacted,  such  as  we 
conclude  were  carried  out  when  the  mounds  were  constructed. 
A  simple  excavation  was  made  in  the  knoll  and  the  bodies  were 
deposited  therein,  apparently  without  any  wrapping.  ("Ohio 
Arch,  and  His.  Soc.  Proceedings,  1897.") 

Two  great  families  of  Indians  were  represented  in  the  valley. 
The  Algonquins,  forming  the  chief  portion  of  the  population, 
were  represented  by  the  Miamis  and  Shawnees,  with  a  few 


iO  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STOt>Y  OF 

Delawarcs  and  Ottawas;  the  Iroquois  stock  was  represented  by 
Wyandots  and  Mingoes.  The  Mad  River  Valley  was  the  favorite 
hunting  ground  of  the  Miamis  and  Shawnees.  The  latter  are 
described  by  a  Smithsonian  official  as  the  "Beduins,  almost  the 
Ishmaelites,  of  the  North  American  Indians."  The  site  of  the 
present  Ferncliff  cemetery  in  Springfield  is  said  to  have  been  a 
sort  of  great  botanical  garden  and  medicinal  laboratory  for  the 
Indians.  This  tradition  is  based  on  the  fact  that  such  a  remark- 
able number  of  families  and  species  of  medicinal  plants  are  rep- 
resented in  a  place  which  could  not  have  been  the  native  habitat  of 
all.  The  "Ough  Ohonda"'  (Buck's  Horn),  or  Lagonda  tribe  of 
Indians,  occupied  the  region  about  the  cemetery  as  a  favorite  place 
for  hunting  and  fishing.  Remnants  of  these  tribes  were  found  in 
the  county  as  late  as  1830. 

Qark  County  claims  the  honor  of  having  been  the  birthplace 
of  the  celebrated  warrior  Tecumseh,  who  belonged  to  the 
totem  of  the  Miraculous  Panther  (Ohio  His.  Soc.  VII:  80). 
Almost  within  sight  of  the  city,  General  George  Rogers  Clark, 
from  whom  the  county  takes  its  name,  defeated  Tecumseh  and  his 
warriors  at  the  battle  of  Piqua  in  1781.  From  this  battlefield 
the  Indians  retreated  northward  along  the  base  of  the  cliffs  border- 
ing on  Mad  River,  finally  entering  Aberfelda  ravine,  and  escaping 
thence  up  the  heights  and  to  the  northwest. 

Section  2.    Present  Inhabitants 

The  riches  of  forest  and  stream  in  the  Miami  country  early 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  white  man.  Tradition  has  it  that 
there  was  a  French  trading  post  near  the  old  Indian- village  of 
Piqua,  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Christopher  Gist,  an  agent  of  the  English  and  Virginia  Land 
Companies,  passed  among  the  Miamis  in  the  county  in  1751  and 
there  is  a  tradition  that  he  gave  Mad  River  its  name.  An  old 
hunter  by  the  name  of  James  Smith,  of  Kentucky,  told  Griffith 
Foos,  in  1810,  that  he  had  hunted  buffalo  and  elk  in  the  Mad 
River  country  fifty  years  before. 

In  1778  Simon  Kenton  was  engaged  in  the  business  of  steal- 
ing horses  from  the  Indians  and  was  caught  and  taken  to  the 
Indian  village  of  Piqua  and  there  condemned  to  death,  but  he  was 
spirited  away  from  the  Indians  through  the  efforts  of  the  notorious 


CLARK  COUNTY,  QHIO.  11 

Simon  Girty.  In  1795  two  men,  Lowery  and .  Donnels,  came 
from  Pennsylvania  and  engaged  in  packing  provisions  for  the 
army  of  General  Wayne,  and  later  were  employed  on  a  surveying 
trip  for  the  Federal  Government.  So  pleased  were  they  with  the 
Mad  River  Valley  that  they  bought  large  tracts  of  land  there. 

In  1799  Simon  Kenton  led  a  small  party  from  Kentucky 
to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  what  is  now  Springfield  and  built  a 
fort  and  fourteen  cabins.  This  settlement  was  soon  abandoned 
in  favor  of  the  better  situation  of  Springfield.  The  founder  of 
the  city  proper  was  James  Demint,  who  came  in  1799,  and  in 
1 80 1  persuaded  a  prominent  surveyor  from  Cincinnati  to  lay  off 
a  plat  for  the  new  town.  The  most  prominent  early  arrival  was 
Griffith  Foos,  who  came  on  a  visit  in  1801,  and  was  persuaded  to 
remain.  Mr.  Foos  is  the  founder  of  one  of  the  city's  most  honored 
families,  and  one  that  has  helped  to  make  Springfield  famous  as 
a  manufacturing  center.  Mr.  Foos  had  a  strong  faith  in  the  im- 
mediate future  of  the  village,,  for  he  forthwith  established  a 
tavern. 

The  many  streams  in  the  region,  in  the  midst  of  broad  and 
fertile  valleys,  immediately  suggested  manufacturing  as  a  means 
of  livelihood,  and  especially  that  sort  of  manufacturing  directly 
depending  on  agricultural  pursuits.  The  first  manufacturing  es- 
tablishment was  a  grist  mill,  celebrated  in  those  days  for  its 
great  capacity — five  bushels  of  grain  in  twenty-four  hours.  The 
town  had  a  slow  growth  during  these  early  years;  in  1804  there 
were  only  eleven  houses,  all  built  of  rough  hewn  logs.  The  town 
was  without  religious  or  educational  influences  of  any  kind  until 
1806,  when  a  subscription  school  was  established,  and  the  Metho- 
dist itinerant  preacher  made  Springfield  a  portion  of  his  circuit. 

During  the  early  period  Tecumseh  returned  to  Ohio  and  to 
the  Miami  Valley,  and  in  1806  grave  fears  were  had  of  an  Indian 
outbreak.  A  solemn  council  was  held  between  the  whites  and  the 
Indians  on  a  large  hill  just  west  of  the  present  site  of  Springfield, 
where  Tarfee  the  Crane,  chief  of  the  Wyandots,  and  Tecumseh 
were  present.  Tecumseh  made  an  animated  and  fluent  speech, 
three  hours  in  length,  and  after  the  speeches  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
arranged  and  ratified  to  the  satisfaction  of  both  parties.  All  fears 
of  the  Indians  now  removed,  the  region  began  to  feel  the  effects 


12  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

of  the  great  westward  movement  toward  Ohio  and  the  Northwest 
Territory. 

The  military  reservations  of  the  various  states,  which  ceded 
the  Northwest  Territory  to  the  United  States,  were  now  being 
opened  up  and  claimed  by  settlers.  There  were  two  great  streams 
of  immigration,  the  smaller  one  from  New  England  and  New 
York,  through  the  Mohawk  valley  and  "Western  Reserve;"  the 
other  from  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia  by  way  of  the 
Susquehanna,  Juniata,  and  the  Ohio,  or  through  the  Potomac, 
Cumberland,  and  Ohio  valleys.  The  report  of  those  who  first 
spied  out  the  land  soon  attracted  others,  and  the  tiny  stream  of 
immigration  soon  deepened  into  a  mighty  river. 

Clark  County  is  made  up  largely  of  the  Symmes  purchase  of 
1778  (it  went  back  to  the  government  in  1794).  It  also  contains 
a  portion  of  the  Virginia  military  district,  and  thus  received  far 
more  from  the  southern  stream  of  immigration  than  from  the 
northerly  or  New  England  stream.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  county  as  a  unit  of  government  is  held  to  be  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  township,  which  is  of  more  importance  to  the 
New  Englander.  Whole  neighborhoods  from  Virginia,  Mary- 
land and  southwestern  Pennsylvania  came  to  the  valley  and  took 
up  great  tracts  of  land.  The  general  route  of  travel  seems  to 
have  been  from  Pennsylvania  or  Maryland  to  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky, and  finally  to  Ohio.  From  a  list  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
names  of  heads  of  families  compiled  from  the  "Biographical  His- 
tory" of  the  county  published  in  1880,  a  table  was  drawn  up 
showing  the  native  state  of  each  of  the  chief  pioneer  settlers. 
This  table  includes  the  majority  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the 
county  and  shows  that  more  than  half  of  the  number  (131) 
came  from  Virginia,  fifty-one  from  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland, 
fourteen  from  New  Jersey;  and  only  one  each  from  New  York 
and  New  England.  The  majority  of  the  settlers  from  foreign 
countries  (twenty-one  in  all)  came  from  England,  with  three 
each  from  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and  four  from  Germany.  In  the 
city  of  Springfield  the  proportions  from  each  state  are  about 
the  same  as  for  the  county. 

In  the  decade  1810-1820,  Springfield  assumed  more  of  the 
character  of  a  manufacturing  town,  containing  a  large  flour  mill, 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  13 

and  a  cotton  mill.  Until  1818  the  county  had  been  part  of  Greene 
and  Champaign  Counties,  but  in  that  year  the  county  was  granted 
a  separate  corporate  existence,  and  Springfield  became  the  county 
seat.  This  was  duly  celebrated,  by  "burning  tar  barrels  before 
the  village  tavern  and  by  drinking  apple-toddy." 

Although  there  were  two  church  societies  in  the  village  in 
1820,  yet  the  morals  of  the  village  society  were  like  those  of  every 
other  settlement  in  the  West  in  those  days.  Every  Saturday  and 
Sunday  were  holidays  and  the  favorite  sport  was  horse  racing. 
The  tavern  was  the  social  center  of  the  village;  here  the  people 
gathered  to  await  the  coming  of  the  mail  coach,  or  to  gossip  and 
drink  rum  and  whiskey.  Sunday  was  spent  chiefly  in  fishing, 
hunting  and  visiting.  The  greatest  event  of  those  days  was  the 
establishment  of  a  county  newspaper  (in  1820)  which  has  existed 
under  various  names  until  the  present  day.  The  rural  population 
was  permeated  with  men  of  a  more  austere  religious  type  who 
undoubtedly  were  a  great  force  in  molding  the  future  of  the 
county's  history. 

Churches  were  few  and  far  between,  and  means  of  communi- 
cation few.  Almost  the  only  method  of  attending  church,  or 
"going  to  town,"  was  by  horseback ;  there  were  frequent  occasions 
for  neighborhood  gatherings  at  weddings,  cabin  raisings,  quilt- 
ings,  funerals,  log  rollings,  husking  bees  and  harvests. 

There  was  much  more  dependence  on  one  another  and  more 
co-operation  probably  than  in  later  years.  In  those  days  Spring- 
field was  not  a  great  market  and  many  of  the  pioneers  had  to  de- 
pend on  Cincinnati  for  staple  supplies  such  as  sugar  and  coffee. 
As  late  as  1845  or  'S°>  tne  farmers  of  a  neighborhood  would  co- 
operate in  sending  wagon  teams  to  Cincinnati,  eighty  miles  away, 
under  the  leadership  of  one  of  their  number,  in  order  to  obtain 
needed  commodities.  No  social  barriers  of  any  kind  existed,  if 
one  may  except  those  of  religion,  and  these  extended  no  farther 
than  the  church  door ;  religious  ties  did  not  prevent  intermarriage 
of  members  of  different  sects,  nor  prevent  acts  of  neighborly  co- 
operation. 

In  1827,  the  village  of  Springfield  was  incorporated  as  a  town, 
since  it  now  possessed  one  thousand  inhabitants.  The  Pioneer 
in  an  issue  of  that  year  boasted  that  the  town  "now  possesses 
nearly  one  thousand  inhabitants,  a  dozen  or  more  small  manu- 


14  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

factories,  three  taverns,  four  schools,  two  churches  (Methodist 
and  Presbyterian)  ;  and  finally,  and  best  of  all,  a  postoffice  at 
which  twenty-four  mails  arrive  weekly  in  elegant  four-horse 
coaches.  One  can  now  get  the  news  from  Washington  only  five 
days  behind  time."  This  last  was  considered  quite  an  advance 
over  former  days  when  the  mail  came  only  once  a  week.  Particu- 
lar stress  was  laid  by  this  paper  on  the  coming  of  the  mail  coach, 
for  such  occasions  were  almost  gala  days  in  the  town.  From  that 
time  the  progress  of  the  county  was  rapid;  there  was  a  steady 
increase  in  immigration.  Many  of  the  oldest-  families  of  the 
county  came  then.  Springfield  was  favorably  situated  on  the 
route  followed  by  immigrants.  One  road  led  from  Cincinnati 
through  the  town  to  the  northwest;  and  another  led  from  the 
east  to  the  west,  intersecting  the  first  at  Springfield.  The  mails 
from  the  east  were  transferred  at  Springfield  to  these  other 
routes  to  the  north,  south  and  southwest. 

The  population  of  the  town  now  became  somewhat  more 
heterogeneous,  but  the  population  of  the  townships  was  as  yet  al- 
most entirely  homogeneous. 

The  decade  between  1830  and  1840  marks  a  distinct  turning 
point  in  the  development  of  town  and  country.  The  cause  of  this 
was  the  building  of  the  old  National  Road.  The  building  of  this 
road  meant  great  things  for  Springfield.  Heretofore  it  had  two 
strong  rivals  and  competitors;  one  of  them  was  Urbana  (to  the 
north),  at  that  time  possessing  a  wide  reputation,  today  a  little 
country  town  in  the  same  dormant  condition  as  are  so  many  other 
little  towns  in  the  Miami  Valley;  the  other  rival  was  to  the 
south — Yellow  Springs,  famous  then  for  the  communistic  experi- 
ment made  there  by  the  disciples  of  Fourier,  and  by  the  great 
work  of  Horace  Mann  in  founding  Antioch  College.  The  con- 
struction of  the  road  enabled  Springfield  soon  to  outdistance  these 
places.  The  road  was  entirely  completed  as  far  as  a  point  about 
half  a  mile  from  the  city's  present  western  boundary,  where  the 
construction  on  the  part  of  the  Federal  Government  ceased,  except 
for  one  or  two  bridges  which  were  erected  a  few  miles  west  of 
the  city.  The  National  Road  placed  Springfield  on  the  Nation's 
great  highway.  A  half  dozen  sleepy  little  villages  in  the  county, 
each  containing  very  few  more  inhabitants  than  it  then  possessed, 
still  bear  mute  witness  to  the  heyday  of  their  youth  when  the 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  -  15 

road  was  the  chief  highway  of  commerce  and  travel.  In  each 
village  may  still  be  seen  one  or  more  old  weatherbeaten  structures, 
neglected  and  often  unused,  generally  of  brick,  sometimes  of 

frame,  bearing  in  faded  letters,  "Hotel,"  "Tavern,"  or  " 

House." 

Springfield  was  a  natural  stopping  place  for  those  persons 
journeying  from  the  southwest  to  Washington,  or  from  the  east 
to  the  west,  or  southwest.  The  glories  of  the  National  Road 
were  enjoyed  to  the  fullest  extent  by  the  citizens  of  the  town.  At 
this  point  the  mails  for  the  Mississippi  Valley  left  the  "road"  and 
were  distributed  to  various  places.  "Billy"  Werden's  hotel  was 
then  the  leading  hostelry  of  the  town,  and  in  fact  noted  over  all 
western  Ohio.  The  taverns  were  filled  daily  with  great  and  small. 
Traditions  abound  of  the  visits  of  Clay,  Webster,  "Old  Tippe- 
canoe,"  Jackson,  Cass,  and  many  others  of  the  statesmen  of  those 
early  days. 

Naturally  many  travelers  stopped  here  permanently,  attracted 
by  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  or  by  the  natural  advantages  for  man- 
ufacturing purposes.  At  this  day  one  can  scarcely  realize  the 
vast  amount  of  traffic  on  this  great  highway.  A  newspaper  of 
1836  date,  for  example,  states  that  twelve  hundred  Conestoga 
wagons,  loaded  with  immigrants,  passed  through  the  town  dur- 
ing September  and  October  of  that  year. 

The  newspapers  of  that  period  are  a  fair  index  of  the  pros- 
perity of  the  time.  The  front  pages  were  almost  entirely  given  up 
to  advertisements,  as  many  as  fifty  or  sixty  being  on  one  page, 
each  with  a  crude  illustration.  Every  merchant  believed  in  adver- 
tising, and  the  advertisements  show  the  pushing,  energetic  char- 
acter of  the  people.  Even  the  undertaker's  business  was  pushed. 
One  such  "ad"  set  forth  the  merits  of  a  certain  undertaking  estab- 
lishment, illustrated  by  a  picture  of  a  grave  under  a  willow  tree, 
and  the  following  legend:  "A  convenient  hearse  always  in  readi- 
ness. No  pains  spared  to  please  customers."  One  interesting 
feature  of  the  social  life  of  this  period  was  "Muster-day,"  when 
by  state  law  each  able-bodied  man  had  to  attend  public  drill. 
These  muster-days  soon  degenerated  into  occasions  for  a  general 
frolic  and  merry-making,  and  were  discontinued  during  the  early 
forties. 


16  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

During  the  height  of  the  prosperity  of  the  National  Road, 
the  town's  population  was  almost  doubled,  its  growth  being  nearly 
four  times  greater  than  that  of  the  county  as  a  whole,  and  six 
times  greater  than  the  rural  population. 

The  year  1840  is  noted  in  the  county's  annals  for  many 
reasons.  The  West  was  the  storm  center  of  political  excitement, 
which  became  the  occasion  of  immense  assemblies  of  the  people. 
McMaster  speaks  of  the  great  assembly  in  Dayton  of  over  one 
hundred  thousand  people ;  and  the  truth  of  the  assertion  was  veri- 
fied to  me  by  an  old  pioneer  who  was  present  at  the  meeting. 
Springfield  was  a  little  storm  center  also,  and  the  scene  of  monster 
meetings.  The  same  year  also  marks  an  era  in  the  industrial 
progress  of  the  city.  In  that  year,  James  Leffel  (the  inventor  of 
the  water-wheel)  set  up  tfie  first  foundry  in  the  city,  and  the 
Whitelys  began  the  first  of  those  inventions  in  reaping  machinery 
which  have  made  their  name  famous  the  world  over. 

The  glories  of  the  National  Road  faded  away  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  forties  through  the  coming  of  the  railroads  into 
the  region.  The  first  one  constructed  was  the  Little  Miami  in 
1842.  During  the  decade  the  city  had  made  more  than  twice 
the  rate  of  growth  of  the  state  at  large,  and  in  1850  attained  the 
dignity  of  a  city  and  was  so  incorporated  in  that  year;  during 
the  fifties  nearly  all  those  men  whose  names  are  now  widely 
known  in  the  industrial  world  had  begun  to  set  up  their  small  es- 
tablishments, among  them  the  most  notable  being  those  of  Whitely, 
Foos,  Warder,  Barnett,  Rodgers,  Mast,  Leffel,  and  Thomas. 

The  city  increased  not  only  in  population  and  in  manufac- 
turing, but  also  in  education  and  religion.  In  1845  tne  Luther- 
ans founded  Wittenberg  College,  and  in  1850  public  free  schools 
were  established  in  the  city.  The  two  churches  in  1820  had 
increased  to  sixty-three  (in  the  county).  The  one  Methodist 
organization  had  increased  to  twenty-nine,  and  the  one  Presby- 
terian to  six.  Aside  from  these  the  Christians  or  "New  Lights," 
the  Catholics,  the  Congregationalists,  the  Baptists,  Episcopalians, 
Lutherans,  and  Universalists  had  organizations.  One  body  of 
Old  Order  Dunkards  was  established  in  the  county,  followed  dur- 
ing the  decade  by  Dunkards  and  Mennonites. 

The  Civil  War  period  found  the  city  a  flourishing  manufac- 
turing center  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  agricultural  com- 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  17 

munity.  At  the  first  call  for  troops,  the  response  was  prompt 
from  county  and  city.  Two  companies  responded  within  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  during  the  summer  of  1861  one  whole  regiment 
was  formed  in  the  county;  during  the  whole  war  period  many 
more  companies  of  other  regiments  were  organized.  General  J. 
Warren  Keifer  says  that  Clark  County  sent  out  approximately 
two  thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  men,  or  about  one-tenth  of 
the  total  population.  He  further  says,  "At  one  time  (1864)  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  three-fourths  of  the  men  of  the  required  age, 
fit  for  duty,  and  above  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  voting  population  of 
Clark  County,  were  in  the  service  of  the  United  States."  The 
work  of  the  women  of  the  county  was  equal  to  the  sacrifice  of  the 
men.  "A  Soldiers'  Aid  Society"  was  formed  in  December,  1863. 
The  members  were  numbered  by  hundreds.  They  met  in  neigh- 
borhood groups  to  sew  for  the  families  of  soldiers  who  were  off  on 
duty.  Hundreds  of  articles  were  given  by  the  Aid  Society  to  the 
Great  Western  Sanitary  Fair  at  Cincinnati  in  December,  1863, 
the  value  of  which  amounted  to  over  $1,000. 

The  ladies  of  the  Clark  County  Auxiliary  to  the  Great  West- 
ern Sanitary  Fair  co-operated  in  collecting  nearly  $6,000  of  the 
$234,000  raised  for  the  general  fund,  thereby  winning  the  silken 
banner  awarded  by  the  fair  to  the  county  making  the  largest  do- 
nation. "A  room  in  a  hotel  was  devoted  to  the  work,  where  men 
and  women,  young  and  old,  chopped  cabbage  and  packed  pickles 
and  other  food  supplies  in  barrels  and  boxes  and  forwarded  them 
to  the  front." 

Early  in  the  war  a  Young  Ladies'  Sewing  Society  was 
formed,  which  provided  the  soldiers  with  blankets  and  wearing 
apparel.  The  President  of  the  Aid  Society  says:  "The  work  of 
the  women  was  arduous.  The  members  of  their  families  accepted 
cold  lunches  at  home,  so  that  the  women  could  render  efficient 
service  in  the  aid  rooms.  Many  women  who  could  not  be  at 
the  aid  rooms  went  to  the  homes  of  those  who  could  go,  and 
cared  for  their  children  while  the  mothers  were  at  the  rooms  at 
work."  In  all  portions  of  the  county  the  work  and  sacrifice  of 
the  women  was  the  same.  The  work  of  the  women  during  the 
Civil  War  forms  one  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  unsel- 
fish co-operation  in  our  country's  history;  and  it  undoubtedly 


18  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

marks  the  beginning  of  the  larger  part  taken  by  women  in  the 
active  social  life  of  the  country. 

The  Civil  War  period  marks  a  change  in  the  economic  life 
of  the  people,  and  also  in  the  relative  growth  of  the  city  and 
rural  districts.  After  the  war  the  city  assumed  more  and  more 
the  character  of  a  manufacturing  center,  and  entered  upon  an 
era  of  exceptionally  great  prosperity.  While  in  the  decade  1860- 
1870  the  state  increased  in  population  about  fourteen  per  cent., 
Springfield  increased  thirty  per  cent.,  Clark  County  thirty  per 
cent.,  and  the  rural  population  but  seven  per  cent.  This  re- 
markable growth  of  the  city  continued  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  eighties.  This  "boom"  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  city's 
prosperity  was  bound  up  in  one  single  establishment  and  one  in- 
dividual— "The  Reaper  King" — William  N.  Whitely.  The 
climax  of  this  period  of  growth  came  in  the  early  eighties  just 
succeeding  the  building  of  the  great  Whitely  shops,  the  largest 
establishment  in  the  world  for  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  im- 
plements. This  prosperity  was  shown  in  various  ways.  The 
town  could  now  boast  of  a  theater ;  a  public  library  was  estab- 
lished in  1872 ;  a  street  car  system  was  begun  in  1870.  if  one  could 
call  by  the  term  "system"  a  car  line  a  few  blocks  in  length  on  a 
single  street,  and  operated  by  mule  power;  however,  this  line 
has  gradually  extended  and  developed  until  at  the  present  time 
there  is  a  network  of  electric  lines  over  the  whole  city. 

The  end  of  the  period  of  inflation  came  with  the  failure  of 
the  Whitelys  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighties.  A  period  of  de- 
pression set  in.  and  continued  until  1898,  when  a  new  era  of  pros- 
perity and  of  a  more  normal  and  Healthy  growth  set  in.  The 
depression  had  a  noticeable  effect  upon  the  growth  of  population. 
While  from  1870  to  1880  the  city's  population  had  advanced  sixty- 
four  per  cent.,  between  1890  and  1900  the  rate  fell  to  nineteen 
per  cent.  The  renewed  prosperity  is  attributable  to  the  fact 
that  instead  of  one  immense  manufacturing  establishment,  on 
which  almost  the  entire  population  depended,  there  have  grown 
up  scores  and  hundreds  of  smaller  establishments,  employing  from 
fifty  to  fifteen  hundred  men.  A  late  census  brings  out  the  fact 
that  there  are  now  over  300  manufacturing  establishments  in 
the  citv. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  19 

In  closing  the  historical  portion  of  this  study  it  may  not  be 
amiss  to  mention  some  of  the  men  distinguished  in  state  or  nation, 
who  have  called  Clark  County  their  home.  One  might  mention 
Samuel  Shellabarger,  one  of  the  prominent  lawyers  in  the  War 
and  Reconstruction  periods ;  Gen.  Samson  Mason ;  Gen.  J.  War- 
ren Keifer,  ex- Speaker  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives 
and  Major-General  in  the  Spanish  War ;  Rear  Admiral  Joseph  N. 
Miller,  U.  S.  N. ;  Gen.  Frederic  Funston ;  Asa  S.  Bushnell,  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio  for  four  years ;  Judge  William  White,  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Ohio;  Gen.  Chas.  Anthony,  Benjamin  Warder, 
John  W.  Bookwalter,  manufacturer  and  writer,  and  A.  N.  Sum- 
mers, Judge  in  the  Ohio  Supreme  Court. 


20  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


PART  II.     EXISTING   ELEMENTS,  ORGANIZATION 
AND  CONDITIONS 

CHAPTER  I.     SOCIAL   POPULATION 

Section  1.    Artificial  Features  of  the  County 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  natural  features  of  the 
county;  it  remains  only  to  speak  of  the  artificial  features  of  the 
county  and  city  as  developed  or  modified  by  the  population  in  the 
hundred  years  or  more  of  occupation. 

As  already  pointed  out,  the  Miami  Valley  is  exceptionally 
favored  in  materials  for  road  making;  and  the  people  very  soon 
began  to  make  use  of  these  advantages.  For  many  years  the 
roads  were  owned  and  operated  by  turnpike  companies,  and 
a  small  fee  was  charged  for  their  use.  These  companies  always 
kept  the  roads  in  the  best  of  repair.  About  twenty  years  ago 
the  county  bought  up  all  the  turnpikes  and  that  portion  of  the 
National  Road  within  the  county's  borders  and  made  them  all 
free  of  toll.  The  roads  are  now  kept  in  repair  by  the  annual 
"working  of  the  roads,"  which  each  rural  resident  does  in  order 
to  "work  out"  his  taxes.  Special  road  contractors  repair  the 
county  roads  at  other  times  under  the  supervision  of  the  county 
commissioners.  Before  the  county  took  charge  of  the  pikes,  the 
by-roads  were  usually  poor  and  called  mud  roads;  but  such 
roads  are  now  generally  graveled  and  well  cared  for  by  the 
townships.  The  county  is  now  traversed  by  excellent  turnpikes 
and  roads,  which  render  every  portion  of  the  county  easily  ac- 
cessible to  the  markets  of  Springfield  and  other  cities.  These 
roads  have  undoubtedly  had  a  great  part  to  play  in  the  develop- 
ment, not  only  of  the  material  condition  of  the  people  of  the 
county,  but  also  in  the  development  of  the  social  life  of  the  com- 
munity. 

The  farmers  of  the  county  generally  have  the  advantage  of 
a  nearby  railway  station.  The  Cincinnati  division  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania main  line  passes  through  the  southeastern  corner  of  the 
county.  A  branch  line  runs  from  Xenia  to  Springfield.  Spring- 
field was  placed  on  this  branch  road  in  the  early  days  when  road 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  21 

promoters  considered  the  prospects  better  for  the  growth  of 
Xenia  than  of  Springfield.  This  same  mistake  was  made  by  the 
builders  of  the  Erie  Road,  which  runs  from  Urbana  through  the 
county  to  the  southwest,  passing  Springfield  altogether.  The  road 
now  connects  with  the  city  by  the  Dayton,  Springfield  and  Ur- 
bana electric  line.  The  Detroit  Southern  runs  through  the  north- 
western and  the  southeastern  portions  of  the  county,  passing 
through  Springfield.  The  chief  railroad  of  the  county  is  the 
Big  Four,  with  its  five  divisions  branching  out  from  Springfield 
to  the  east,  west,  north  and  southwest.  Pike  township  in  the 
extreme  northwestern  part  of  the  county  is  without  a  single  rail- 
road ;  and  only  one  corner  of  Pleasant  township  in  the  extreme 
northeast  is  cut  by  a  railroad.  These  two  townships  are  the 
ones  which  have  lost  most  heavily  in  population  in  the  last  thirty 
years. 

During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  great  boom  in 
the  building  of  interurban  electric  lines.  The  first  one  built 
was  the  Dayton,  Springfield  and  Urbana,  connecting  Spring- 
field with  those  cities;  and,  via  Dayton,  with  Cincinnati  on  the 
south,  and  Lima  on  the  north.  This  same  company  now  operates 
a  road  from  Springfield  to  Columbus ;  and  is  extending  the 
Urbana  line  to  Bellefontaine.  Another  company  operates  a  line 
from  Springfield  to  Xenia.  Still  another  will  soon  be  completed 
from  Springfield  to  Troy  and  Sidney  to  the  northwest.  This 
line  will  for  the  first  time  give  the  people  of  Pike  township 
access  by  rail  to  the  city. 

The  county  is  divided  into  ten  townships;  the  northern  tier 
of  townships,  beginning  in  the  northwest  corner,  consists  of 
Pike,  German,  Moorefield,  and  Pleasant;  the  middle  tier  of 
Bethel,  Springfield  and  Harmony ;  and  the  southern  tier  of  Mad 
River,  Green  and  Madison.  Most  of  the  townships  are  almost 
exclusively  rural.  There  are  numerous  small  villages  in  the 
county;  the  largest  are  South  Charleston  in  Madison  township, 
and  New  Carlisle  in  Bethel. 

Of  the  412  square  miles  in  the  county,  more  than  90  per 
cent,  is  used  for  agricultural  purposes ;  and  of  this  area  devoted 
to  agriculture,  32  per  cent,  was  cultivated  in  1900.  According 
to  the  twelfth  Federal  census,  there  are  2,330  farms  in  the 
county  and  the  average  size  of  the  farms  is  a  trifle  more  than 


22  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

103  acres — 33  acres  less  than  the  average  for  the  United  States ; 
this  number  is  an  increase  of  280  since  1880.  If  we  arrange 
the  farms  in  groups  according  to  size,  the  mode  falls  in  the 
group  containing  from  10  to  50  acres.  Twenty-six  per  cent,  of 
all  the  farms  fall  in  this  class.  Not  quite  10  per  cent,  contain 
less  than  10  acres  each ;  more  than  59  per  cent,  contain  less  than 
loo  acres  and  less  than  2  per  cent,  contain  more  than  500  acres. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  farms  of  Clark  County  are  only  of  moderate 
extent. 

In  1900  there  were  4,686  dwellings  in  the  rural  districts, 
an  increase  of  13.5  per  cent,  over  1890.  The  farm  houses  in 
general  are  in  good  condition,  of  medium  size  and  well  kept ; 
the  barns  are  commonly  much  larger  than  the  houses,  with  many 
adjacent  outbuildings.  The  older  barns  are  always  situated 
between  the  house  and  the  highway.  Most  of  the  farms  are 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  the  chief  cereals,  corn  and  wheat.  The 
annual  acreage  for  wheat  has  increased  since  1890  from  32,000  to 
41,000  acres,  with  an  average  of  36,000  acres  for  the  decade. 
A  little  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  farm  area  of  1900  was  in 
wheat.  The  acreage  for  corn  during  the  same  period  has  varied 
from  39,000  to  58,000  acres,  with  an  annual  average  of  48,000 
acres.  About  24  per  cent,  of  the  farm  area  of  1900  was  in  corn. 
During  this  period  there  has  been  an  annual  average  yield  of 
578.000  bushels  of  wheat  and  1,646,000  bushels  of  corn.  This 
would  make  an  average  yield  per  acre  of  16.1  bushels  of  wheat 
and  34.3  bushels  of  corn. 

The  annual  average  acreage  of  oats  during  this  same  period 
was  6,000  acres,  or  a  very  little  more  than  2  per  cent,  of  the 
farm  area.  The  average  has  been  180,000  bushels  annually,  or 
30  bushels  per  acre.  Some  25,000  acres  are  in  meadow  and 
clover,  or  10.4  per  cent.  The  area  devoted  to  the  culture  of 
fruits  is  comparatively  a  small  one.  In  1890  only  2,200  acres 
were  in  orchards — less  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  farm  area.  The 
orchards  of  the  county  are  much  smaller  and  fewer  in  number 
than  thirty  years  ago.  Many  of  the  small  farms,  especially  in 
the  western  part  of  the  county,  are  given  over  entirely  to  the  pro- 
duction of  fruit  and  market  truck.  Much  attention  is  given 
in  this  same  region  to  the  raising  of  small  fruits;  in  1901,  600 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  23 

acres  were  used  in  their  culture.  A  market  for  them  is  found 
in  Springfield  and  Dayton. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  the  amount  of  land  used  in  the 
production  of  vegetables,  but  the  great  amount  given  over  to 
the  culture  of  vegetables  for  the  city  markets  is  shown  by  the 
statement  that  in  1901  there  were  nearly  617,000  square  feet 
under  glass  alone,  or  nearly  one-tenth  of  the  area  so  used  in  the 
State  of  Ohio. 

The  soil  of  some  portions  of  the  county  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  flowers  and  greenhouse  products.  One- 
seventh  of  the  total  area  used  in  Ohio  for  raising  hothouse  plants  is 
found  in  Clark  County,  and  the  sales  of  plants  are  larger  than 
for  any  other  county  in  the  state.  More  than  250  acres"  are  used 
for  flower  and  nursery  products.  The  farm  lands  of  the  county 
have  been  so  rich  that  scarcely  any  attention  has  been  paid  until 
recent  years  to  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  soil  to  insure  a 
return  of  foods  necessary  to  plant  growth,  so  that  now  much 
of  the  land  is  impoverished.  Until  recent  years  no  other  fertilizer 
was  used  save  the  refuse  from  the  stable,  but  during  the  past  ten 
years  there  has  been  an  increasing  use  of  commercial  fertilizer. 
The  amount  so  used  has  increased  from  238,000  pounds  in  1892 
to  900,000  pounds  in  1902. 

In  former  years  much  more  land  was  used  for  pasturing  sheep 
and  cattle  for  market  purposes.  In  1850  there  were  raised  53,000 
sheep  and  19,000  cattle;  in  1900  only  13,000  cattle  and  19,000 
sheep  were  pastured. 

In  1875  nearly  43,000  acres  were  in  pasture,  while  in  1900 
only  27,000  acres  were  so  used.  The  forest  area  is  not  large.  In 
1850  there  were  37,350  acres  of  woodland;  in  1900,  21,700  acres. 
The  proportions  of  the  total  farm  area  in  pasture  and  woodland 
in  1900  were  11.2  per  cent,  and  9  per  cent,  respectively.  Very 
little  of  the  land  can  be  considered  waste  land,  and  this  is  made  up 
chiefly  of  the  cliffs  along  the  creek  banks  near  Springfield,  and 
the  swampy  borders  of  the  northern  course  of  Mad  River.  Only 
about  2,500  acres  (or  barely  one  per  cent.)  of  the  farm  area  are 
waste  land. 


24  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

Section  2.    Artifical  Features  of  Springfield 

Springfield  is  situated  almost  in  the  center  of  the  county  and 
covers  an  area  of  about  eight  and  one-half  square  miles.  The  city 
was  originally  laid  out  in  the  valley  of  Buck  Creek,  but  has  now 
spread  out  on  the  higher  ground  to  the  north  and  south.  The  city 
has  direct  railway  connections  with  the  leading  cities  of  the  state 
and  the  United  States  by  means  of  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Big 
Four,  the  Detroit  Southern,  and  the  Erie.  The  railway  accommo- 
dations for  passenger  traffic  are  by  no  means  commensurate  with 
the  importance  of  the  city  as  a  railway  center.  Each  road  has  a 
separate  station ;  although  the  Big  Four  station  is  scarcely  worth 
the  name,  and  the  others  are  little  better. 

The 'private  dwellings  are  of  the  sort  one  would  expect  to 
find  in  a  community  composed  largely  of  well-to-do  mechanics, 
most  of  whom  are  natives  of  the  county  or  state.  The  number  of 
dwellings  in  1900  was  about  8,000,  or  one  dwelling  to  every  4.7 
persons  in  the  city.  This  is  an  increase  of  19.3  per  cent,  over  1890. 
The  number  has  been  increased  much  more  rapidly  since  1900, 
by  the  greater  demand  for  men  in  the  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. Judging  from  partial  reports  there  are  now  (January, 
1904)  about  9.500  dwellings. 

The  business  houses  have  developed  rapidly  during  the  last 
three  years,  and  the  business  portion  of  the  town  is  taking  on  more 
and  more  the  character  of  the  up-to-date  city.  The  public  build- 
ings, with  one  exception,  are  good.  The  city  building  (and  general 
market  house  combined)  is  one  of  the  finest  and  largest  in  Ohio. 
The  city  prison  has  been  a  disgrace  to  the  city,  but  this  will  soon 
give  place  to  a  modern  city  prison  and  work-house  now  in  process 
of  construction.  The  city  now  has  a  large  and  well  kept  park  of 
over  250  acres,  donated  by  a  citizen  of  the  county  several  years 
ago ;  the  city  has  spent  thousands  of  dollars  in  beautifying  it,  until 
it  is  now  one  of  the  finest  in  the  state. 

Springfield  has  always  been  exceptionally  favored  in  its  water 
supply.  The  surrounding  regions  to  the  north  and  east  contain 
many  large  springs  with  an  abundance  of  the  purest  water.  In 
1 88 1,  the  municipality  began  the  construction  of  a  water  works 
system  which  has  already  cost  more  than  three  quarters  of  a  mil- 
lion of  dollars.  There  is  a  large  pumping  station  near  the  eastern 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  25 

border  of  the  city  which  has  a  daily  capacity  of  twelve  million 
gallons  of  water.  Every  portion  of  the  city  is  thus  supplied  with 
good  water,  although  wells  are  used  in  many  places.  Sometimes 
during  the  summer  months  creek  water  must  also  be  used,  but  this 
is  now  rendered  absolutely  pure  by  a  filtering  system  in  the  region 
of  the  water  supply.  The  supply  of  water  is  generally  equal  to  the 
demand.  An  annual  and  very  moderate  rental  is  charged  for  the 
use  of  the  water.  On  the  whole  the  system  of  public  ownership 
has  been  successful,  although  the  water  works  department  has  not 
been  operated  as  economically  as  it  would  probably  have  been  if 
operated  by  a  private  corporation.  There  is  a  great  waste  of  water 
since  there  is  no  limit  whatever  to  its  use  after  the  fee  is  paid.  All 
this  might  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  the  meter  system  in  charging 
for  the  use  of  water. 

As  yet  Springfield  has  not  given  much  attention  to  the 
artificial  arrangement,  or  to  the  correct  physical  conditions  for  the 
proper  development  of  the  city.  Until  1890,  little  thought  was 
given  to  the  problems  of  street  making  or  street  cleaning ;  almost 
all  that  was  done  was  to  place  gravel  or  broken  stone  on  the  streets 
and  after  a  few  months  haul  it  away  in  the  shape  of  mud.  The 
first  attempt  to  pave  a  street  was  made  about  ten  years  ago ;  since 
that  time  all  the  principal  streets  have  been  paved  or  macadamized. 
At  first  the  paved  streets  were  little  better  than  the  others  because 
of  the  lack  of  adequate  means  of  cleaning  them.  In  1901,  how- 
ever, a  system  of  street  cleaning  was  adopted,  patterned  after  Col. 
Waring's  plan  in  New  York;  this  plan  has  been  successful 
and  the  paved  streets  at  least  are  now  kept  in  a  very  good 
condition. 

The  city  has  never  made  any  adequate  provision  for  getting 
rid  of  sewage  and  garbage;  indeed,  the  city  uses  practically  the 
same  methods  used  twenty  or  more  years  ago.  A  great  deal  of 
garbage  is  still  carted  away  by  farmers  living  near  the  city;  the 
corporation  itself  employs  only  a  few  wagons  for  removing 
garbage  and  street  refuse,  the  number  being  entirely  insufficient 
for  the  needs  of  the  people.  Recently  there  has  been  some  agi- 
tation for  better  means  of  garbage  disposal,  but  as  yet  nothing  has 
been  accomplished. 

The  method  for  the  disposal  of  sewage  is  even  worse  than 
that  for  the  disposal  of  garbage.  The  majority  of  the  dwellings 


26  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

of  the  city  still  have  the  old-fashioned  private  vaults,  a  number  of 
which  are  too  shallow  and  are  poorly  constructed.  At  the  same 
time  wells  are  used  as  a  source  of  water  supply  in  many  parts  of 
the  city,  although  the  city  water  is  at  hand.  Buck  Creek  and 
Mill  Run  are  used  chiefly  in  carrying  off  the  sewage.  Buck 
Creek  runs  through  the  city  from  east  to  west,  and  Mill  Run  is  (or 
was)  a  little  brook  running  diagonally  through  the  city  from  the 
southeastern  boundary,  and  emptying  into  Buck  Creek  near  the 
center  of  the  city.  In  1870  the  city  walled  over  this  brook  and 
made  it  the  trunk  sewer,  although  Mill  Run  is  but  a  shallow 
stream.  Since  that  time  sewers  have  been  built  at  a  great  expense, 
intended,  however,  to  carry  off  storm  water  only,  and  not  for  the 
disposal  of  sewage.  The  State  Board  of  Health  estimates  that 
from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  the  population  discharge  sewage 
either  through  public  or  private  sewers  into  either  -Mill  Run  or 
Buck  Creek.  There  are  twelve  miles  of  public  sewers,  all  on  the 
combined  plan,  discharging  into  these  streams  through  seventeen 
outlets  and  draining  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  corporation.  Mill 
Run  flows  through  the  most  thickly  built-up  part  of  the  city,  where 
it  empties  into  Buck  Creek.  This  little  stream  receives  not  only  the 
discharge  of  about  175  sewers,  most  of  which  were  put  in  by  pri- 
vate parties  on  their  own  responsibility,  but  is  also  used  for  the 
disposal  of  garbage  and  rubbish.  Often  the  hollow  places  in  the 
bed  of  the  stream  become  filled  with  putrefying  masses  of  garbage 
and  sewage.  Mill  Run  is  never  thoroughly  cleansed  except  in 
time  of  freshets.  The  storm  sewers  have  been  used  largely  and 
illegally,  even  by  the  city  itself,  for  carrying  off  the  sewage  from 
closets  and  vaults.  The  condition  of  Buck  Creek  is  dangerous, 
and  in  many  instances  a  fatal  menace  to  the  public  health.  The 
creek  has  an  average  depth  of  only  three  or  four  feet,  and  even 
less  than  this  during  the  summer  months,  so  that  the  current  is 
not  strong  enough  to  carry  away  all  the  refuse.  The  city  health 
officer  reports  that  Mill  Run  sewer  is  in  such  a  condition  that  no 
freshet  even  could  clean  it  out.  The  secretary  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health  in  a  letter  of  December,  1903,  scores  the  city  on  account 
of  these  disgraceful  conditions,  and  states  that  the  present  sys- 
tem is  a  gross  blunder. 

There  is  urgent  need  of  more  modern  methods  in  dealing  with 
the  problem  of  sewage  disposal.     This  need  has  been  repeatedly 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  27 

affirmed  by  the  city  health  officer  and  by  local  physicians.  The 
city  officials,  last  November,  presented  a  plan  for  a  new  sewerage 
system ;  but  the  State  Board  of  Health  disapproved  of  the  plan  in 
very  strong  terms  and  decided  that  the  permanent  discharge  of 
sewage  into  Mill  Run  should  not  be  permitted,  and  its  discharge 
into  Mad  River  should  be  allowed  only  upon  the  condition  that 
the  city  install  purification  works  when  deemed  necessary  by  the 
State  Board  of  Health.  The  State  Board  therefore  recommended 
the  erection  of  a  filtering  or  disposal  plant  for  the  city's  sewage. 
This  seems  to  be  the  only  feasible  plan,  and  will  probably  be 
adopted. 

The  city  is  well  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity  furnished  by 
private  companies.  Natural  gas  has  been  used  for  fuel  for  ten 
years  or  more.  The  gas  is  piped  from  Fairfield  County  some  sixty 
miles  away.  Artificial  gas  sells  at  one  dollar  per  thousand  feet 
and  the  natural  at  twenty-five  cents. 

Considering  this  portion  of  our  subject  as  a  whole,  we  may 
conclude  that  Springfield,  like  most  other  American  cities  in  the 
past,  has  devoted  more  attention  to  its  immediate  economic  wel- 
fare than  to  those  conditions  which  make  for  the  largest  degree 
of  physical  and  moral  health  in  the  community. 

Section  3.    The  Social  Population 

(a)       GENERAL   POPULATION 

The  total  population  today  (January,  1904)  is  about  62,800; 
the  census  of  1900  makes  it  58,939.  The  population  of  the  city  is 
at  least  42,000  (census  of  1900,  38.253).  The  rural  population  is 
about  20.800 — 20,686  by  the  census  of  1900.  Aside  from  Spring- 
field there  are  two  towns  in  the  county  each  having  approxi- 
mately 1,000  population:  and  there  are  four  other  incorporated 
villages  each  having  about  two  hundred  inhabitants,  and  eleven 
or  twelve  unincorporated  villages  with  a  total  population  of  about 
1,500.  Since  at  least  1,000  people  in  Springfield  township  may 
be  classed  as  residents  of  the  city,  there  were  left  in  the  county 
according  to  the  1900  census  about  15,400  persons  who  may  be 
classed  as  exclusively  rural.  In  the  whole  county  there  are  152 
persons  to  the  square  mile,  and  in  the  rural  districts  51  per  square 


28 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


mile.  A  glance  at  the  population  statistics  for  the  past  sev- 
enty years  shows  that  the  growth  of  the  city  has  been  at 
the  expense  of  the  country  in  a  very  noticeable  degree.  Es- 
pecially since  the  Civil  War  has  the  process  of  what  may  be 
conveniently  termed  social  selection  been  going  on.  For  example, 
in  1830  but  8  per  cent,  of  the  county  population  was  urban ;  28 
per  cent,  in  1860;  39  per  cent,  in  1870;  61  per  cent,  in  1890;  and 
65  per  cent,  in  1900.  Probably  67  per  cent,  of  the  people  now 
live  in  the  city.  In  1900  over  seventy-five  per  cent,  lived  in  the 
city  and  villages.  The  same  proportion  holds  good  for  all  south- 
ern Ohio.  This  is  a  much  greater  proportion  than  for  the  state 
at  large.  Ohio  in  1900  had  58.1  per  cent,  in  incorporated  places, 
and  the  United  States,  47.1  per  cent.  The  following  table  shows 
the  proportions  of  urban  and  rural  populations  since  1830: 

TABLE  I. 
General  Population  from  1830  to  1900. 


Date. 

Clark  County. 

Springfield. 

Rural. 

1830  .'  

13,114 

1,080 

12,034 

1840  

16,882 

2,062 

14,820 

1850  

22,178 

5,108 

17,070 

I860  

25,300 

7002 

18  298 

1870  

32,070 

12  652 

19418 

1880  

41,948 

20,732 

21  216 

1890  

52277 

31  895 

20  382 

1900  

58939 

38  253 

20  686 

*1904  

62,800 

42  000 

20  800 

1 

*  Estimated. 

This  process  of  social  selection  may  also  be  seen  in  the  rates 
of  increase  of  city  and  rural  population.     During  the  decade  from 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  29 

1840  to  1850  the  city  increased  152.8  per  cent,  and  the  rural  pop- 
ulation 15  per  cent.  By  1870  the  city  rate  was  81  per  cent,  and 
the  rural  only  6  per  cent.  The  hard  times  of  the  past  decade 
lowered  the  city  rate  to  19.9  and  the  rural  rate  to  1.5  per  cent. 
The  rural  population  underwent  an  absolute  decrease  from  1880 
to  1890,  due  in  part  to  the  extension  of  the  city  boundary  lines. 
The  city  rate  since  1900  has  evidently  been  higher  than  before 
1900,  while  the  rural  and  village  populations  barely  hold  their 
own.  Since  1860  the  city  has  increased  over  400  per  cent,  and 
the  rural  population  but  12.5  per  cent.  As  regards  the  total 
increase  of  population  in  the  county  in  the  last  decade,  Clark 
County  holds  the  twenty-seventh  place  among  the  Ohio  counties. 
A  study  of  the  growth  of  the  county  by  townships  and  vil- 
lages throws  further  light  on  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  process 
of  social  selection.  The  village  of  New  Carlisle  has  increased  a 
little  more  than  16  per  cent,  since  1860,  and  has  not  held  its  own 
since  1890.  South  Charleston  has  doubled  its  population  since 
1860,  but  has  increased  only  5.3  per  cent,  since  1890.  Many  of  the 
villages  have  not  gained  more  than  a  half  a  dozen  people  since  1850. 
This  tendency  has  been  especially  noticeable  since  1880.  The 
only  township  making  over  10  per  cent,  increase  since  1890 
is  Springfield;  this  can  readily  be  accounted  for  in  the  fact 
that  there  are  in  this  city  so  many  unincorporated  suburbs. 
Of  the  nine  other  townships,  including  all  villages,  there  has  been 
an  absolute  decrease  of  over  350  persons  or  more  than  2  per  cent, 
since  1890;  the  total  loss  since  1880  has  been  much  greater  than 
since  1890,  making  a  decrease  of  2.4  per  cent.  The  year  1880 
seems  then  to  mark  the  period  of  maximum  rural  population. 
Leaving  the  two  chief  villages  out  of  consideration,  there  has  been 
a  decrease  of  nearly  5  per  cent,  since  1880.  Three  townships  have 
made  but  little  gain  in  fifty  years  and  these  three  are  almost  ex- 
clusively rural,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  conservative  in 
political  and  religious  ideas.  Since  the  building  of  so  many  in- 
terurban  electric  lines  there  has  been  a  very  slight  beginning  of  a 
movement  from  the  city  to  the  country,  but  this  movement  is  as 
yet  too  slight  to  be  studied  statistically.  These  conditions  are 
fairly  typical  of  the  movement  of  the  population  in  the  whole  of 


30 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


the  Miami  Valley.    The  following  table  shows  the  population  of 
the  townships  since  1850: 


TABLE  II. 
Population  of  Clark  County  by  Townships. 


Date. 

Bethel. 

German. 

Green. 

Harmony. 

Madison. 

t." 

B 
> 

5 

•o 
a 

3 

Moorefield. 

o 
M 

E 

Pleasant. 

Springfield. 

1850  

2,648 
2,898 
3,086 
3,131 
3,407 
3,295 

1,912 
1,904 
1,918 
2,100 
2,058 
1,995 

1,278 
1,386 
1,464 
1,524 
1,532 
1,425 

1,804 
1,929 
1,821 
1,846 
1,819 
1,830 

1,400 
1,477 
1,965 
2,396 
2,204 
2,281 

1,790 
1,707 
1,873 
1,812 
1,750 
1,847 

1,214 
1,312 
1,268 
1,345 
1,307 
1,435 

1,462 
1,491 
1,582 
1,758 
1,758 
1,533 

1,349 
1,540 
1,553 
1,581 
1,597 
1,437 

2,206 
2,722 
2,888 
3,725 
2,950 
3,608 

I860  

1870  

1880  

1890     

1900     

The  urban  population  of  Clark  County  is  20  per  cent,  greater 
than  for  the  state  at  large.  Springfield  itself  has  not  reaped  the 
benefits  it  should  have  reaped  as  a  result  of  the  decrease  of  the 
rural  population ;  and  has  not  held  its  relative  place  among  the 
cities  of  the  country  when  ranked  according  to  growth  and  pop- 
ulation. In  1860  the  city  stood  in  the  one  hundredth  place  of  the 
cities  of  the  country  ranked  according  to  population ;  by  1890  it 
had  risen  to  ninety-fourth  place ;  but  it  fell  again  to  one  hundred 
and  fourth  place  in  1900.  Every  one  of  the  eight  largest  cities 
in  Ohio,  except  Cincinnati,  made  a  larger  growth  than  Springfield 
in  the  last  decade.  This  can  be  accounted  for  in  two  ways: 
first,  great  numbers  of  virtual  citizens  of  the  city  live  in  the 
unincorporated  suburbs ;  and  secondly,  the  commercial  and  man- 
ufacturing opportunities  offered  by  other  cities  are  larger  be- 
cause of  the  more  favorable  situation  near  some  natural  or 
artificial  waterway  or  other  highway  of  commerce. 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO.  31 

(b)    POPULATION   BY   AGE   CLASSES. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  much  use  comparatively  of  census 
material  on  population  by  age  classes,  since  the  census  of  1900 
refers  to  the  cities  alone,  and  former  reports  only  to  the  county. 

In  1900,  657  persons  in  Springfield  were  reported  as  being 
under  one  year  of  age ;  this  is  one  and  seven-tenths  per  cent,  of 
the  total  population  and  would  mean  a  birth  rate  of  only  17.2 
per  1,000.  This  percentage  is  slightly  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  males  in  this  class  outnumbered  the  females 
by  31,  and  formed  52.2  per  cent,  of  the  total.  The  number  of 
males  is  only  2  greater  than  the  number  in  1890,  and  the  females 
were  51  fewer  than  in  1890;  this  would  mean  an  excess  of  births 
over  deaths  in  1890  of  22.2  per  I,OQO.  It  is  interesting  to  com- 
pare these  figures  with  the  census  figures  for  1850  and  1860.  In 
1850  with  a  population  of  22,178  (in  the  county)  the  number  re- 
ported under  one  year  of  age  formed  2.9  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion, which  would  mean  an  excess  of  births  over  deaths  of  29.1 
per  1,000.  In  1860  the  number  under  one  year  made  an  excess 
of  births  over  deaths  of  30  per  1,000.  This  age  class  decreased 
nearly  7  per  cent,  from  1890. 

There  were  2,576  persons  in  1900  reported  between  one  and 
five  years  of  age,  or  6.7  per  cent,  of  the  population.  This  is  a 
decrease  of  7.4  per  cent,  since  1890;  51.5  per  cent,  of  these  were 
males. 

The  next  age  class,  between  5  and  10  years,  included  9.5  per 
cent,  of  the  population.  This  percentage  is  nearer  the  proportions 
of  the  same  class  in  1850  and  1860  than  those  of  the  two  classes 
above  mentioned.  The  number  in  1900  is  an  increase  of  6  per 
cent,  over  1890.  The  next  age  class,  from  10  to  20  years,  in- 
cluded 21.2  per  cent,  of  the  population. 

In  the  whole  county  there  were  18,502  persons  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  20  or  31.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  population;  63.7 
per  cent,  of  these  were  urban.  This  element  of  the  city  population 
comprises  30.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  and  only  49.7  per 
cent,  were  males.  This  class  increased  16.1  per  cent,  over  1890. 
This  element  forms  32.5  per  cent,  of  the  rural  population,  51.2  per 
cent,  of  whom  are  males;  it  has  declined  5  per  cent,  since  1890. 
In  the  county  this  age  class  consists  of  native  whites,  foreign 


32  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

whites  and  colored,  in  the  proportions  90.1,  0.9,  and  9  per  cent., 
respectively. 

Of  the  native  whites  61  per  cent,  were  urban  and  formed 
87.7  per  cent,  of  this  age  class  in  the  city.  The  same  class  includes 
78  per  cent,  of  all  the  negroes  in  the  county.  Among  the  urban 
negroes  50.9  per  cent,  were  males.  The  negroes  of  this  class 
make  up  30.7  per  cent,  of  all  the  urban  negroes.  The  native 
white  of  native  parents  have  increased  31.1  per  cent,  over  1890; 
while  the  native  whites  of  foreign  parents  have  decreased  4  per 
cent.:  and  the  negroes  have  increased  15.1  per  cent. 

In  1900,  27.9  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  city  were  in 
the  age  class,  20  to  35  years ;  it  will  be  noted  that  this  is  almost 
as  many  as  those  between  the  ages  of  5  and  20,  inclusive ;  50.5  per 
cent,  of  these  were  males.  In  the  next  age  class,  from  35  to  45 
years,  were  found  13  per  cent,  of  the  population.  There  was  an 
increase  over  1890  of  17.4  per  cent,  in  the  20-25  year  class,  and 
of  30.8  per  cent,  in  the  35  to  45  year  class. 

About  one-sixth  of  the  city  population  was  between  45  and 
65  years  of  age,  an  increase  of  41.2  per  cent,  over  1890.  About 
4.1  per  cent,  of  the  population  was  over  65,  of  whom  47  per  cent. 
were  males. 

Considering  the  city  population  by  age  classes,  we  find  that 
the  mode  is  in  the  age  class  15  to  24  years,  which  class  includes 
more  than  one-fifth  of  all. 

(c)       POPULATION  BY  SEX. 

In  1900,  a  little  more  than  half  (50.7  per  cent.)  of  the  popula- 
tion was  made  up  of  males.  This  is  only  a  trifle  larger  than  the 
proportion  for  Ohio,  which  was  50.6  per  cent. ;  and  less  than  for 
the  country  at  large,  which  was  51.2  per  cent.  This  proportion 
has  varied  little  in  the  county  in  the  past  fifty  years  with  two 
exceptions,  1850  and  1880,  when  the  proportions  of  males  were 
51.96  and  51  per  cent.,  respectively.  In  the  city  population,  in 
1900,  the  proportion  was  slightly  smaller  than  for  the  county  as 
a  whole,  being  50.4  per  cent.  In  1890,  however,  the  males  were 
in  the  minority,  the  proportion  being  49.9  per  cent.  In  the  rural 
districts,  in  1900,  the  proportion  of  males  was  51.1  per  cent.,  and 
51.3  per  cent,  in  1890.  This  seems  rather  surprising,  as  we  would 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  33 

look  for  more  males  in  the  city  than  in  the  country,  considering 
the  character,  age,  and  conjugal  condition  of  the  immigrant  wage 
earners  in  Springfield.  The  statement  in  the  last  Federal  census 
that  each  census  shows  a  larger  proportion  of  males  does  not  hold 
good  for  this  county  and  city.  A  comparison  with  the  chief 
counties  and  cities  in  the  Miami  Valley  shows  that  about  the 
same  proportions  hold  good. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  many  comparisons  concerning  the 
relative  increase  of  males  and  females.  In  the  whole  county 
during  the  past  fifty  years  there  has  been  a  relative  increase  of 
males  in  three  of  the  five  decennial  periods.  From  1880  to  1890 
the  males  increased  23.1  per  cent,  and  the  females  26.2  per  cent.; 
while  during  the  last  decade  the  males  increased  13.8  per  cent, 
and  the  females  11.3  per  cent.  The  relative  increases  are  con- 
trary to  the  tendency  for  the  United  States  at  large,  where  we  find 
20.9  per  cent,  and  21.1  per  cent,  increase,  respectively.  One 
reason  for  the  relative  increase  of  males  during  the  past  decade 
has  been  the  renewed  economic  opportunities  in  the  city.  In 
Springfield  from  1890  to  1900  the  males  increased  21.4  per  cent, 
and  the  females  18.5  per  cent.  In  the  rural  districts  the  increase 
is  2  per  cent,  for  males  and  1.9  per  cent,  for  females. 

(d)    NATIVE  AND  FOREIGN   BORN. 

By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  county  population  is 
native  born.  In  1900  the  native  born  formed  93.3  per  cent,  of 
the  total  population.  This  proportion  has  been  a  constantly  in- 
creasing one.  In  1860  the  native  born  formed  88.9  per  cent, 
of  the  population,  and  in  1880,  89.8  per  cent.  In  1900  63.5  per 
cent,  of  the  native  born  were  urban.  This  proportion  was  only 
59  per  cent,  in  1890,  and  less  than  50  per  cent,  in  1880. 

The  city  has  also  a  very  large  percentage  (90.1)  of  native 
born.  From  1870  to  1880  the  city  received  its  greatest  influx  of 
foreign  elements;  but  since  that  time  the  foreign  element  has 
steadily  decreased.  The  rural  districts  are  practically  all  native 
born;  in  1900  there  were  fewer  than  30  foreigners  to  each  1,000 
native  born.  The  increase  of  native  born  has  been  much  greater 
in  the  city  than  in^  the  country ;  in  the  city  during  the  past 
decade  the  increase  of  native  born  (24  per  cent.)  was  5  per  cent. 


31  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

greater  than  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  total  urban  population ; 
while  in  the  rural  districts  the  rate  of  increase  (3  per  cent.)  was 
twice  as  great  as  the  rate  for  the  total  rural  population. 

The  native  born  have  also  increased  much  faster  than  the 
foreign  born.  (We  treat  the  foreign  born  and  the  foreign  whites 
as  essentially  the  same.)  The  absolute  numbers  of  the  foreign 
born  (3.920)  in  Clark  County  in  1900  were  only  about  twice  as 
great  as  the  number  in  1850.  Forty  years  ago  the  foreign  born 
were  about  equally  divided  between  city  and  country;  but  since 
that  time  the  relative  number  in  the  city  has  been  constantly 
increasing  until  the  present  time,  when  85  per  cent,  are  urban. 
The  actual  numbers,  however,  in  both  city  and  country  have  been 
decreasing  rapidly.  In  the  city  between  1870  and  1880  there 
was  an  increase  of  42.2  per  cent.,  and  between  1880  and  1890 
an  8.2  per  cent,  increase ;  while  during  the  last  decade  there  has 
been  a  decrease  of  over  15  per  cent.  There  has  been  no  foreign 
immigration  to  the  rural  districts  in  the  last  thirty  years.  By 
1880  the  foreign  rural  element  had  decreased  14.6  per  cent. ;  by 
1890  the  decrease  was  25.4  per  cent. ;  and  by  1900  there  was  a 
further  decrease  of  31.1  per  cent. 

Native  and  Foreign  Born  By  Sex. — Fifty  and  seven-tenths 
per  cent,  of  the  native  born  in  the  whole  county  in  1900  were 
males,  practically  the  same  as  the  proportion  in  the  whole  coun- 
try, and  exactly  the  same  as  the  proportion  of  all  males  in  the 
county.  More  than  60  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  females  lived  in 
the  city.  In  the  city  the  proportion  of  males  (50.6  per  cent.)  is 
one  per  cent,  greater  than  in  1890.  This  is  owing,  no  doubt,  to 
the  recovery  of  the  city  from  the  industrial  depression  of  the  period 
between  1885  and  1895.  In  both  city  and  rural  districts  the 
males  have  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  females.  The  in- 
crease of  urban  males  during  the  last  census  period  was  26  per 
cent,  and  the  increase  of  females  22.1  per  cent.  In  the  rural  dis- 
tricts the  increase  of  males  is  greater  by  1.5  per  cent,  than  that 
of  the  females. 

Among  the  foreign  born  in  1900,  we  find  that  52.6  per  cent, 
in  the  whole  county  are  males.  The  city  contains  83.3  per  cent,  of 
all  the  foreign  males  and  85.7  per  cent,  of  tfi£  foreign  females  in 
the  county.  This  would  indicate  a  greater  disinclination  on  the 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  35     - 

part  of  foreign  born  females  to  live  in  the  >rural  districts.  In 
the  city  51.9  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  born  are  males,  a  slight 
decrease  from  the  proportion  in  1890.  In  the  rural  districts  in 
1900,  the  proportion  of  males  was  56.5  per  cent.,  a  slight  increase 
over  1890.  In  the  city  during  the  last  decade  there  has  been  a 
decrease  in  the.  numbers  of  both  sexes,  but  the  males  decrease 
by  a  greater  percentage  than  the  females.  In  the  rural  districts 
the  decrease  of  females  has  been  greater  than  that  of  the  males. 

Native  Whites  of  Native  Parents. — This  element  comprises 
about  two-thirds  of  the  total  county  population  and  71.2  per  cent, 
of  all  the  native  born.  The  native  born  in  the  county  increased 
1 6  per  cent,  during  the  last  decade.  This  is  4  per  cent,  greater 
than  the  increase  of  the  total  population.  While  more,  than  63  per 
cent,  of  all  the  native  born  in  the  county  lived  in  the  city  in  1900, 
but  56.6  per  cent,  of  the  native  whites  were  urban;  this  is  an 
increase  of  5  per  cent,  over  1890.  There  is  a  contrast  be- 
tween these  proportions  of  native  whites  of  native  parents  and 
those  of  the  negro  and  foreign  born  population.  Urban  life  seems 
to  be  relatively  more  attractive  to  the  latter  than  to  the  former. 

In  the  city  in  1900  this  element  made  up  58  per  cent,  of  the 
total  urban  population,  and  63.4  per  cent,  of  the  native  born.  This 
is  an  increase  of  26.2  per  cent,  over  1890,  and  is  7  per  cent, 
greater  than  the  increase  of  the  general  population,  2  per  cent, 
greater  than  the  increase  of  the  native  born,  7  per  cent,  greater 
than  the  increase  of  the.  colored,  and  7  per  cent,  greater  than  the 
increase  of  the  total  white  population. 

In  the  rural  districts,  in  1900,  this  class  made  up  82.2  per 
cent  of  the  total  rural  population,  and  nearly  85  per  cent,  of  the 
native  born.  Here  also  this  class  made  the  largest  per  cent, 
of  increase  (4.4  per  cent.)  of  any  population  class.  This  is  1.4 
per  cent,  greater  than  the  increase  of  all  native  born,  0.8  per  cent, 
greater  than  for  the  white  population,  and  more  than  twice  the 
rate  of  the  total  population. 

The  proportion  of  males  (51  per  cent.)  in  this  class  in  the 
county  is  practically  the  same  as  the  proportion  of  the  total  popu- 
lation. The  percentage  of  urban  males  of  this  class  was  56.7  per 
cent. ;  this  is  5  per  cent,  greater  than  the  proportion  in  1890.  The 
proportion  of  urban  females  to  all  females  of  this  class  in  the 


36  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

county  was  56.8  per  cent. ;  this  is  4  per  cent,  more  than  the  propor- 
tion in  1890. 

The  increase  of  males  in  the  city  over  1890  was  28.7  per  cent., 
nearly  4  per  cent,  greater  than  the  increase  of  females.  This 
relatively  greater  increase  of  males  has  already  been  explained. 
The  males  in  the  rural  districts  also  increased  faster  than  the 
females,  the  rate  being  5.5  for  the  males  and  3  per  cent,  for  the 
females. 

Native  Whites  of  Foreign  Parents. — This  element  in  1900 
made  up  about  18  per  cent,  of  the  total  county  population,  about 
the  same  proportion  as  in  1890.  More  than  four-fifths  of  this 
class  live  in  the  city,  an  increase  of  3  per  cent,  over  the  proportion 
in  1890. 

In  the  city  this  element  forms  22.3  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion. During  the  last  decade  it  increased  19.1  per  cent.  In  the 
rural  districts  this  element  forms  one-tenth  of  the  rural  popula- 
tion. During  the  past  decade  this  class  declined  nearly  one  per 
cent,  and  is  far  from  holding  its  own  in  growth  with  the  other 
native  white  element. 

In  both  1890  and  1900  the  proportion  of  males  in  this  class 
in  the  county  was  the  same,  49.3  per  cent.  Four-fifths  of  all 
the  males  in  the  county  are  urban,  while  81  per  cent,  of  the  females 
are  urban.  The  proportions  for  1890  also  indicate  a  relatively 
greater  inclination  of  females  of  this  class  for  city  life. 

In  the  city  there  are  fewer  males  than  females  of  this  ele- 
ment. In  1890  the  males  of  every  other  urban  population  class 
except  the  foreign  born  were  in  the  minority,  but  they  became  a 
majority  in  1900.  Among  the  native  whites  of  foreign  parents, 
however,  the  males  formed  a  minority  in  1900  also,  48.9  per  cent. 
This  is  a  very  slight  increase  over  1890. 

In  the  rural  districts  in  1900  the  males  were  in  the  majority, 
50.7  per  cent.  This  is  a  decrease  from  1890,  when  the  proportion 
was  51.2  per  cent.  During  the  decade,  however,  the  males  de- 
creased 2.4  per  cent.,  while  the  females  increased  i.i  per  cent. 
The  disparity  in  numbers  of  the  males  and  females  in  this  class 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  many  males  left  the 
city  and  county  during  the  industrial  depression  early  in  the 
decade.  It  seems  to  indicate  also  that  there  is  a  greater  move- 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  37 

ment  of  this  element  from  the  city  than  of  the  other  class 
of  the  native  whites. 

Population  and  Place  of  Birth. — For  convenience  of  compari- 
son we  shall  speak  of  the  city  population  only.  Statistics  are  not 
available  for  ascertaining  the  number  in  the  rural  districts  who 
were  born  in  Ohio.  Probably  not  more  than  one  in  ten  persons 
outside  of  the  city  was  born  outside  of  Ohio.  In  Springfield 
the  number  of  native  born  in  1900  was  34,942.  More  than  four- 
fifths  were  born  in  Ohio.  This  is  equivalent  to  73.5  per  cent, 
of  the  total  population.  The  number  born  in  Ohio  increased 
nearly  24  per  cent,  over  the  number  in  1890.  Of  the  native  born 
from  other  states,  the  Virginias  and  Kentucky  furnished  the 
greatest  number — 2,000.  One  out  of  every  17  of  the  native  born 
came  from  one  of  these  three  states.  There  has  been  an  increase 
of  22  per  cent,  in  the  number  from  these  states  since  1890. 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  come  next  in  order,  with  nearly  1,700, 
or  5  per  cent.  The  number  from  these  states  increased  19  per 
cent,  over  1890.  New  York  and  New  England  now,  as  formerly, 
furnish  very  few  of  the  population  (only  two  per  cent.).  The 
other  Southern  states  aside  from  those  mentioned  furnished  only 
420  in  1900,  or  about  1.5  per  cent.  The  states  of  Indiana  and 
Illinois  furnished  only  3.2  per  cent. ;  and  the  small  remainder  is 
scattering. 

If  we  divide  the  native  born  into  classes  we  find  the  follow- 
ing results:  The  native  whites  of  native  parents  numbered  22,168 
in  1900;  of  these  82.1  per  cent,  were  born  in  Ohio.  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania  furnished  6  per  cent. ;  Kentucky  and  the  Virginias 
3  per  cent ;  New  York  and  New  England  2.5  per  cent. ;  Indiana 
and  Illinois  3  per  cent.  Comparing  this  group  with  the  total 
native  born,  we  find  that  it  comprises  78  per  cent,  of  all  born  in 
Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  71  per  cent,  of  all  born  in  Indiana 
and  Illinois,  35  per  cent,  of  all  born  in  'Kentucky  and  the  Vir- 
ginias, and  ii  per  cent,  of  all  born  in  other  Southern  states. 

In  1900  there  were  8,259  native  whites  of  foreign  parents. 
Nearly  90  per  cent,  of  these  were  born  in  Ohio;  3  per  cent,  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland ;  one  per  cent,  in  Kentucky  and  the 
Virginias ;  3  per  cent,  in  New  York  and  New  England ;  3  per  cent, 
in  Illinois  and  Indiana;  the  remainder  in  various  places. 


38  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

The  negroes,  4.250  in  number,  made  up  12.1  per  cent. 
of  the  native  born;  58.9  per  cent,  of  these  were  born  in  Ohio. 
Nearly  42  per  cent,  therefore  were  from  other  states.  The  Vir- 
ginias and  Kentucky  furnished  27.6  per  cent.,  the  other  Southern 
states  7.3  per  cent. ;  various  places  the  remainder. 

A  comparison  of  the  native  born  of  Springfield  with  those 
of  other  cities  of  the  Miami  Valley  shows  that  the  same  pro- 
portion prevails  elsewhere.  The  cities  of  southwestern  Ohio 
have  not  been  much  affected  by  the  later  immigration  from 
Europe,  while  the  cities  of  northern  Ohio  show  a  remarkable 
increase  of  immigrants  from  other  countries.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  seems  to  be  a  growing  immigration  of  negroes  from  the 
border  states  and  the  Carolinas. 

Birthplace  of  Foreign  Born  Population. — Unfortunately 
there  can  be  no  comparison  of  city  and  country,  since  the  Federal 
census  of  1870  and  that  of  1880  concern  the  county  only;  while 
those  of  1890  and  1900  concern  the  city  only. 

A  study  of  the  census  material  of  these  four  census  years, 
however,  shows  the  prevailing  immigration  during  the  last  thirty 
years.  In  1870  nearly  one-half  of  the  foreign-born  were  Irish, 
one-third  German,  and  about  one-sixth  either  English  or  Scotch. 
By  1880  the  Germans  had  increased  relatively  to  the  other  nation- 
alities. Since  1880  there  has  been  a  slight  change  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  immigration.  By  1900  the  Germans  outnumbered 
the  Irish,  and  the  number  from  the  United  -Kingdom  had  declined. 
In  1900  the  Germans  of  foreign  birth  in  the  entire  county  num- 
bered 1,600,  only  12  per  cent,  more  than  in  1880;  but  they  now 
made  up  40.6  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  born  element.  Eighty-four 
per  cent,  of  them  lived  in  the  city.  The  Irish  numbered  1,300,  a 
decrease  of  30  per  cent,  from  1880.  In  1900  they  made  up  about 
one-third  of  the  foreign  born ;  84.6  per  cent,  of  them  were  urban. 
The  United  Kingdom  furnished  some  500,  with  the  great  major- 
ity in  the  city.  About  3.5  per  cent,  were  English  Canadians; 
2.5  per  cent.  French  or  Swiss ;  2  per  cent.  Italian ;  and  a  little 
more  than  one  per  cent,  were  from  Russian  Poland  and  Austro- 
Hungary. 

The  foreign  born  element  in  Springfield  is  small,  not  quite 
10  per  cent,  of  the  total  urban  population.  The  Germans  lead 
with  1,337  persons,  or  a  little  over  40  per  cent,  of  all  foreign  born. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  39 

They  occupy  the  northwestern  and  northeastern  portions  of  the 
city.  The  Irish  number  about  1,100,  or  nearly  one-third  of  all 
the  foreign  born ;  they  occupy  the  eastern  and  southeastern  por- 
tions of  the  city.  The  English  and  Scotch  elements  are  more  than 
12  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  born;  the  Italians  2.3  per  cent.  (78 
persons)  ;  the  Canadian  English  3.9  per  cent.;  the  Russians  and 
Poles  1.7  per  cent.,  or  56  in  all. 

The  600  foreign  born  in  the  rural  districts,  little  more  than 
2  per  cent,  of  the  entire  rural  population,  are  chiefly  Germans 
and  Irish;  42  per  cent,  being  German  and  32.5  per  cent,  being 
Irish,  16.3  per  cent.  English,  and  the  remainder  scattering. 

The  character  of  the  later  foreign  born  element  is  made 
clearer  by  reference  to  their  ages.  In  1900  nearly  43  per  cent,  of 
the  German  element  in  the  city  was  over  21  years  of  age;  so  also 
was  38.6  per  cent,  of  the  Irish ;  36.2  per  cent,  of  the  English  and 
Scotch ;  44  per  cent,  of  the  Italians ;  52  per  cent,  of  the  Poles ; 
50  per  cent,  of  the  Canadian  English;  and  two-thirds  of  the 
Hungarians. 

There  were  only  102  aliens  in  Springfield  in  1900  or  an 
average  of  about  three  to  every  1,000  of  the  total  population. 
They  were  divided  as  follows:  21  Germans;  19  Irish;  17  English; 
20  Italians;  4  Russians;  2  Greeks,  and  the  remainder  scattering. 

Foreign  Parentage. — In  Springfield,  according  to  the  last 
Federal  census,  31.1  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population,  or  11,900 
in  all,  had  either  a  foreign  father  or  mother.  Seventy-four  per 
cent,  of  these  had  both  parents  foreign ;  18  per  cent,  had  a  native 
mother  and  foreign  father  and  8  per  cent,  had  a  native  father 
and  foreign  mother.  Of  those  who  had  both  parents  born  in 
specified  countries,  43  per  cent,  were  German,  37.5  per  cent.  Irish, 
about  8  per  cent.  English  or  Scotch,  one  per  cent.  Italian  and 
the  remainder  scattering.  Those  having  native  fathers  and  for- 
eign mothers  numbered  856.  These  foreign  mothers  came  chiefly 
from  the  United  Kingdom  or  English  Canada  (41  per  cent.)  ;  27 
per  cent,  each  came  from  Germany  and  Ireland ;  and  the  remain- 
der were  scattered  among  the  Canadian  French,  Swedes,  and 
Swiss.  The  total  of  persons  with  foreign  fathers  and  native 
mothers  is  157  per  cent,  greater  than  the  total  of  the  last  class 
mentioned.  Of  these  foreign  fathers  42.6  per  cent,  were  German, 


40  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

27.7  per  cent.  Irish,  22.1  per  cent.  English  or  Scotch,  and  the 
remainder  scattering. 

These  facts  bear  out  the  statement  to  be  made  further  on, 
that  amalgamation  is  going  on  much  more  rapidly  among  the 
Germans  than  among  the  Irish.  It  is  interesting  also  to  note 
that  13  Italians  and  22  Hungarians  were  in  the  last  class  men- 
tioned. 

Those  who  had  both  parents  from  foreign  countries,  but 
not  from  the  same  country,  numbered  556.  Of  the  fathers  marry- 
ing some  person  from  another  foreign  country,  34.4  per  cent, 
were  English,  25  per  cent.  Irish,  18  per  cent.  German,  the  remain- 
der scattering.  Of  the  mothers  in  specified  countries  who  married 
some  one  of  another  country,  45  per  cent,  were  English,  20  per 
cent.  German,  22.6  per  cent.  Irish,  and  the  remainder  scattering. 

The  recent  immigration  has  not  greatly  affected  Clark  County, 
nor  indeed  the  Miami  Valley.  Very  few  of  the  foreign  born  have 
been  in  Springfield  less  than  fifteen  years.  Only  a  trifle  more  than 
one  per  cent,  of  the  3,311  foreign  born  in  the  city  came  during  the 
last  census  year ;  only  2.3  per  cent,  have  been  here  less  than  five 
years  and  of  these  the  males  and  females  were  almost  equal 
in  numbers.  Since  1890  only  131  males  and  116  females  (7.5  per 
cent.)  came  to  the  city.  Not  quite  ten  per  cent,  more  had  been 
here  from  10  to  14  years;  while  2,000  persons,  1,054  men 
and  946  women,  or  more  than  60  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  born, 
have  been  here  more  than  twenty  years. 

From  the  consideration  of  the  population  thus  far  we  may 
draw  the  following  conclusions :  The  county  population,  aside 
from  the  city,  is  even  yet  very  largely  homogeneous.  In  the  early 
days  great  tracts  of  land  were  bought  by  three  or  four  men  in  a 
neighborhood ;  and  these  tracts,  often  cut  up  into  smaller  ones, 
are  yet  held  by  their  descendants.  In  the  majority  of  the  town- 
ships the  greater  number  of  people  are  more  or  less  nearly 
related  by  ties  of  kindred,  and  in  many  families  this  feeling  of 
common  origin  and  kinship  is  kept  alive  by  annual  gatherings. 
For  example,  Green  township  is  largely  made  up  of  descendants 
of  four  pioneer  settlers ;  and  two  of  these  "clans"  have  an  organi- 
zation and  hold  annual  reunions.  The  population  statistics  seem 
to  affirm  our  judgment,  made  after  personal  investigation,  that 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  41 

before  1880  the  county  population  was  not  much  less  homogeneous 
than  50  years  before.  In  1880  one  might  have  noticed  the  begin- 
ning of  the  dispersion  of  the  rural  population  to  Springfield  and 
to  other  cities.  Of  the  rural  population  due  to  genetic  aggrega- 
tion, groups  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  county  are  largely  made  up 
of  descendants  of  immigrants  from  England  or  Virginia,  with  a 
sprinkling  of  Scotch  and  Irish.  Green  township  has  in  addition 
many  descendants  of  the  Pennsylvania  Dutch  and  Marylanders. 
The  north  and  west  are  largely  peopled  by  descendants  from 
Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  stocks ;  and  the  southwestern  portion 
has  many  descendants  of  the  Pennsylvania  Dutch  from  Lan- 
caster County,  Pennsylvania.  For  the  most  part,  family  or 
clan  feeling  never  imposed  any  barrier  to  mixture  of  blood  by 
intermarriage,  so  that  today  the  foundation  stock  is  English, 
with  a  liberal  admixture  of  German,  Irish,  and  Scotch  blood.  In 
the  rural  districts  the  foreign  immigration  of  the  past  20  years 
has  had  so  little  influence  that  the  stock  is  about  what  it  was  20  or 
even  40  years  ago.1  The  same  admixture  of  ethnic  elements 
has  been  going  on  in  the  city ;  although  one  element  may  be 
more  pronounced  in  one  portion  of  the  city  than  another.  We 
have  already  mentioned  the  Germans  and  the  Irish  in  this 
particular.  The  negroes  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  city,  but 
more  especially  near  the  southern,  eastern  and  northern  bor- 
ders. Of  the  social  effects  of  these  divisions  we  shall  speak  in 
another  place. 

(e)       POPULATION    BY    COLOR. 

The  discussion  of  population  by  color  is  limited  to  the  whites 
and  negroes ;  since  in  1900,  aside  from  these  two  races,  there 
were  only  three  representatives  of  any  other  race — and  these 
three  were  Chinese. 

This  portion  of  our  study  brings  up  the  interesting  and 
important  negro  problem;  in  this  and  other  portions  of  our 
study,  where  we  shall  discuss  the  two  races,  constant  reference 
will  be  made  to  the  special  studies  of  negro  communities  pub- 
lished by  the  National  Labor  Bureau. 

In  1900  the  white  population  of  Clark  County  numbered 
53,693,  or  91.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  There  is  a  very 


1  In  this  reference  to  racial  mixture  we  refer  of  course  to  glottic  race  and  not 
to  color. 


42  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

large  negro  population  and  one  that  is  rapidly  growing.  In  1900 
the  negroes  numbered  5,243,  or  8.9  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation. This  proportion  has  been  practically  the  same  since  1870. 
A  safe  estimate  would  be  that  there  are  now  56,800  whites  and 
6,000  negroes  in  the  county. 

Of  the  white  population,  63.3  per  cent,  live  in  the  city.  The 
proportion  of  the  whites  living  in  the  city  has  increased  very 
rapidly.  In  1860  scarcely  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  the  inhab- 
itants were  urban ;  less  than  half  were  urban  in  1880;  and  59  per 
cent,  in  1890.  The  percentage  of  growth  of  urban  whites  has 
been  slightly  less  than  for  the  population  as  a  whole. 

The  white  population  of  Springfield  comprises  88.8  per  cent., 
and  the  colored  population  11.2  per  cent,  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation. This  proportion  of  negroes  has  been  practically  the  same 
since  1880.  There  are  now  probably  5,000  negroes  in  the  city. 
By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  negroes  incline  to  city  life,  more 
than  four-fifths  in  the  county  being  in  Springfield.  In  1870 
about  60  per  cent,  lived  in  the  city,  in  1880  66  per  cent., 
and  in  1900  81.1  per  cent. 

The  993  rural  negroes  make  up  but  4.8  per  cent,  of  the  total 
rural  population,  and  are  unevenly  divided  among  the  townships 
of  the  county.  For  some  reason  there  are  practically  no  negroes 
west  of  a  line  drawn  through  the  center  of  the  county  from 
north  to  south.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  in  Harmony,  Madison, 
and  Green  townships — that  is,  in  the  eastern  and  southeastern 
portions  of  the  county.  There  can  be  no  reason  for  this  division 
in  the  political  complexion  of  the  other  parts  of  the  county, 
since  the  townships  are  mostly  Republican. 

The  negro  population  of  this  county  and  city  is  quite  large 
in  comparison  with  other  counties  in  Ohio.  Champaign  and 
Greene  counties  have  large  colonies  of  negroes.1  About  22  per 
cent,  of  Xenia's  population  is  colored.  This  is  the  largest  negro 
population  in  any  city  of  Ohio.  Urbana  in  Champaign  County 
contains  n.8  per  cent,  colored.  Springfield  thus  ranks  slightly 
below  Urbana  in  the  proportion  of  negroes.  The  growth  of  the 
negro  population  of  these  places  has  not  been  as  great  since  1870 

1  The  negroes  of  Greene  County  and  Xenia  have  recently  been  studied  under 
the  direction  of  the  United  States  Labor  Bureau,  the  report  of  which  Is  printed 
in  the  bulletin  for  September,  1903. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  43 

as  the  rate  of  growth  in  Clark  County.  Many  are  leaving  those 
counties  and  coming  to  Springfield.  The  reason  for  this  is  found 
in  the  greater  economic  advantages  of  the  city.  It  is  rather  singu- 
lar that  Dayton,  southwest  of  Springfield,  and  nearer  Xenia  than 
Springfield,  has  only  4  per  cent,  colored  population.  Columbus 
has  6.5  per  cent.,  and  Cincinnati  only  4  per  cent,  colored. 

The  increase  of  colored  population  in  this  county  and  city 
has  been  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  the  whites  ever  since  1870 ; 
in  the  rural  districts,  however,  it  has  been  decreasing  much  faster 
than  the  white  population.  In  1860  there  were  only  about  500 
in  the  whole  county,  56  per  cent,  of  whom  were  in  the  city.  Dur- 
ing and  immediately  after  the  Civil  War  there  was  a  great  influx 
of  negro  immigrants ;  this  was  a  part  of  the  steady  immigration  of 
negroes  into  Ohio  during  war  times.  Thus  the  500  of  1860  had  in- 
creased to  2,056  in  1870;  and  the  city's  population  of  276  in 
1860  had  increased  to  1,227  m  1870.  This  city  population  of  1870 
was  nearly  doubled  by  1880,  when  the  proportion  of  urban  to 
rural  was  nearly  two  to  one.  By  1890  the  city  population  had 
increased  another  50  per  cent.,  thus  making  the  proportion  of 
urban  to  rural  negroes  about  four  to  one. 

The  rural  colored  population  is  decreasing  rapidly.  Between 
1870  and  1880  there  was  a  gain  of  47  per  cent.,  but  between  1880 
and  1890  the  number  decreased  19.6  per  cent.,  and  during  the 
last  decade  9.5  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  white  rural 
population  decreased  3.5  per  cent,  between  1880  and  1890  and 
increased  2  per  cent,  in  the  last  decade. 

The  great  increase  in  colored  population  must  be  due  almost 
entirely  to  immigration,  as  will  be  seen  more  clearly  by  a  com- 
parison of  birth  and  death  rates.  The  immigration  has  been 
chiefly  from  'Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina. 

Population  by  Color  and  Sex, — The  proportion  of  white 
males  in  the  county  in  1900  is  practically  the  same  as  the  pro- 
portion of  males  in  the  total  population.  The  proportion  of  white 
males  in  the  city  was  50.5  per  cent,  of  the  city  population.  In 
the  rural  population  the  proportion  is  greater  by  one  and  one-half 
per  cent,  than  the  proportion  of  males  in  the  total  rural  popula- 
tion— 51.9  per  cent,  for  white  males,  and  50.4  per  cent,  for  all 
males.  The  proportion  of  white  males  in  the  city  has  increased 
less  than  one  per  cent,  over  the  49.8  per  cent,  of  1890,  while  the 


44  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

proportion  in  the  rural  districts  has  increased  at  about  the  same 
ratio. 

In  1900,  62.4  per  cent,  of  all  the  white  males  in  the  county 
lived  in  the  city ;  this  is  an  increase  over  1890,  when  only  59 
per  cent,  were  urban.  A  larger  relative  proportion  (63.9  per 
cent.)  of  all  white  females  in  the  county  were  urban,  an  increase 
of  about  2  per  cent,  over  1890.  In  the  city  the  increase  of  white 
males  has  been  greater  proportionately  than  the  increase  of  white 
females.  Between  1890  and  1900  the  white  males  increased 
20.4  per  cent.  This  is  a  slightly  greater  increase  per  cent,  than 
that  for  the  whole  population,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  renewed 
industrial  activity  in  the  city.  The  white  females  in  the  city  in 
the  same  period  increased  18.9  per  cent.  Eighty-one  and  one- 
half  per  cent,  of  all  the  colored  males,  and  80.8  per  cent,  of  all  the 
colored  females  in  the  county  in  1900  were  urban.  The  pro- 
portion of  urban  males  has  increased  5.5  per  cent,  since  1890, 
and  the  proportion  of  females,  3.7  per  cent. 

The  colored  population  of  the  city  in  1900  consisted  of  51.7 
per  cent,  males  and  50.3  per  cent,  females.  In  1890,  however, 
the  females  were  in  the  majority.  In  the  rural  districts  the  pro- 
portion of  males  in  1900  was  50.8  per  cent.,  one  per  cent,  less 
than  in  1890.  Since  1890  there  has  been  a  great  immigration  of 
colored  males  into  the  county;  for  while  the  total  population  in- 
creased 12  per  cent.,  and  the  white  population  12.7  per  cent.,  the 
colored  males  increased  16.1  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  col- 
ored females  in  the  county  increased  but  5.4  per  cent. 

In  the  city  the  males  increased  24.2  per  cent,  in  the  last 
decade;  a  greater  increase  by  5  per  cent,  than  that  of  all  males 
in  the  population.  The  colored  females  in  the  city  increased  14.8 
per  cent.,  4  per  cent,  less  than  the  increase  of  all  urban  females. 

The  extent  of  the  movement  cityward  in  the  colored  popula- 
tion may  be  seen  in  the  relative  decrease  in  the  rural  negro 
population.  In  the  last  decade  the  general  rural  population  in- 
creased 1.5  per  cent.,  the  white  male  population  3.6  per  cent.,  and 
the  white  females  1.3  per  cent.,  while  the  colored  males  decreased 
1 1. 1  per  cent.,  and  the  colored  females  decreased  7.5  per  cent. 

These  figures  show  that  the  total  population  in  the  last  decade 
has  increased  by  the  relatively  greater  increase  of  males;  and 


CLARK   COUNTY,  OHIO. 


45 


that  the  increase  of  negro  males  is  considerably  greater  than 
that  of  the  white  males,  while  the  increase  of  negro  females  is 
much  less  than  that  of  the  white  females. 

A  comparison  of  the  relative  numbers  of  males  and  females 
with  those  found  in  the  studies  of  the  negroes  of  Farmville  and 
Sandy  Springs  is  interesting.  The  Farmville  study  shows  1,053 
females  to  every  1,000  males,  and  the  Sandy  Springs  study  shows 
1,143  females  to  every  1,000  males.  Our  study  of  Clark  County 
shows  that  in  1890  there  were  in  Springfield  1,005  females  to 
every  1,000  males,  but  in  1900  only  997.5  to  each  1,000  males. 
In  the  rural  districts  in  1900  there  were  972  females  to  every 
1,000  males.  Our  study  bears  testimony  to  the  statement  of  the 
author  of  the  Sandy  Springs  study  that  one  characteristic  of 
the  race  problem  is  the  immigration  of  males  and  especially 
of  females  to  the  city ;  although  we  do  not  find  the  immigration 
to  the  city  so  marked  as  in  the  above  places. 


TABLE   III. 


Population  of  the  County  by  Sex,  Color,  and  Nativity. 


d 

White. 

Colored. 

e 

o 
PQ 

I 

02 

SP 

Males. 

• 
73 
1 

1 

00 

Q) 

"3 

a 

Female 

Males. 

<b 
"3 

a 

5 

5 

Native 

1 

£ 

1850.... 

11,525 

10,653 

11,369 

10,486 

156 

167 

19,222 

1,956 

I860.... 
1870.... 
1880.... 
1890.... 

12,832 
16,201 
21,414 
26,359 

12,468 
15,869 
20,534 
25,918 

12,573 

12,235 

259 

233 

22,429 
28,514 
37,679 
47,658 

2,871 
3,556 
4,269 
4,619 

24,020 

23,612 

2,335 

2,307 

1900.... 

29,983 

28,956 

27,272 

26,424 

2,711 

2,532 

55,019 

3,920 

46 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


TABLE   IV. 
Population  of  the  City  by  Sex,  Color,  and  Nativity. 


Males. 

I 

Females. 

White. 

Colored. 

g 

o 

"eS 

Foreign  Born. 

f 

ID 

"a 

S 

Female. 

& 
"3 

S 

Female. 

1850.... 
I860.... 
1870 

2,602 
3,431 

2,476 
3,571 

3,295 

2,371 
3,431 

107 
136 

105 
140 

10,483 
17,646 
28,160 
34,942 

2,169 
3,084 
3,725 
3,311 

1880 

1890.... 
1900.... 

15,899 
19,306 

15,996 
18,947 

14,125 
17,017 

14,218 
16,903 

1,770 
2,209 

1,779 
2,044 

TABLE  V. 

Relative  Increase,  by  Percentages,  of  White  and  Negro  Population  in 
Urban  and  Rural  Districts  Since  1860. 


Date. 

Springfield. 

Rural. 

1 
i 

•    >rt 
0) 

in 
o 

s 

White. 

Colored. 

1860-1870  

69.9 
60.7 
54.3 
19.9 

344.6 
92.3 
50.4 
19.7 

28.0 
7.5 
*3.6 

2.1 

1 

283.8 
47.1 
*10.6 
*9.5 

1870-1880  

1880-1890  

1890-1900  

*  Decrease. 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO. 


47 


TABLE  VI. 
Relative  Increase  of  the  Various  Population  Elements  from  1890  to  1900. 


County. 

City. 

Rural. 

Total  population   

12.0+ 

19.9 

1.9 

Total  male  population  

13.8 

21.4 

2.0 

Total    white    males  

13.5 

20.4 

i 
1            3  6 

Total   colored   males  

16.1 

24  2 

•11.1 

Total  females   

11.3 

18  5 

1  9 

Total   white  females  

11.9 

18  9 

1  3 

Total   colored    females  

9.7 

14.8 

*7  5 

' 

*  Decrease. 
Section  4.    Growth  of  Population  by  Genetic  Aggregation 

(a)       GENERAL 

Having  studied  the  population  as  arranged  in  sex,  age,  and 
racial  groups,  we  have  now  the  problem  before  us  whether  the 
increase  in  population  has  been  due  to  immigration  or  to  the 
excess  of  births  over  deaths.  The  investigation  of  this  portion  of 
our  subject  has  been  a  disappointment,  because  of  the  lack  of 
proper  and  authentic  materials.  The  state  of  Ohio  gathers 
annually  the  statistics  of  births  and  deaths  from  county  probate 
courts;  and  they  in  turn  get  their  material  from  the  reports  of 
assessors.  In  the  cities  of  Ohio  the  boards  of  health  receive 
statements  from  the  physicians  concerning  births  and  deaths.  In 
Clark  County,  then,  the  only  source  of  such  statistics  for  the 
rural  population  is  the  assessors'  returns.  In  the  city,  for  ten 
years  past,  there  has  been  a  separate  record  kept  by  the  health 
officer,  who  registers  every  birth  and  death  announced  by  the 
physicians ;  the  accuracy  of  his  records  depends  upon  the  physi- 
cians' promptness  in  sending  reports.  One  physician  stated 
to  the  writer  that  he  had  not  been  called  on  for  a  report  for  six 


48  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

montiis  through  the  carelessness  of  the  sanitary  marshal  who 
collects  the  data.  While  there  is  no  direct  proof  that  the  county 
assessors  have  been  careless  in  getting  exact  returns,  yet  a  com- 
parison of  the  probate  court  records  with  those  of  the  city  health 
office  furnishes  a  basis  for  a  belief  that  the  vitality  statistics  are 
wholly  inaccurate.  For  example,  in  the  year  1899,  a  difference 
of  more  than  one  hundred  was  found  in  the  reports,  the  number 
in  the  assessors'  reports  being  one  hundred  less  than  the  number 
reported  by  the  city  physicians.  One  would  not  expect  so  great 
discrepancies  to  occur  in  the  death  records,  but  almost  as  great 
an  error  appears  in  the  same  year  between  the  assessors'  and 
physicians'  returns.  The  discrepancy  in  this  year  is  only  one 
among  many.  The  probate  records  are  in  very  poor  condition 
for  study  ;  with  the  exception  of  a  few  years,  no  annual  summaries 
have  been  preserved,  and  in  these  summaries  no  distinction  has 
been  made  between  city  and  rural  population.  For  several  years 
the  only  way  in  which  to  gain  any  idea  of  the  numbers  in  city 
and  country  is  to  take  each  assessor's  report  and  tabulate  each 
individual  name  as  urban,  rural,  white,  black — a  method  too  labo- 
rious for  practical  use.  At  present  the  city's  birth  and  death 
records  are  in  a  chaotic  condition ;  no  provision  is  made  for 
printing  the  summaries  and  the  only  method  of  obtaining  infor- 
mation is  to  take  each  year  and  tabulate  the  numbers  with  regard 
to  sex  and  color. 

Although  we  have  not  been  able  to  separate  the  county  and 
city  records  so  as  to  compare  them,  yet  we  may  make  a  very  rough 
comparison  between  the  city  and  the  rural  districts.  Our  investi- 
gation includes  a  study  of  the  vital  statistics  for  a  period  of  thirty 
years.  The  births,  month  by  month,  have  been  tabulated  since 
1880,  for  sex  and  color.1  In  looking  over  the  annual  birth 
records  of  the  county,  the  first  thing  to  hold  the  attention  is  the 
great  prominence  of  certain  years.  Since  1875  there  have  been 
only  five  years  in  which  there  is  a  record  of  more  than  1,000 
births.  It  may  be  that  the  records  are  more  accurate  for  those 
years;  and  in  the  year  1894  (one  of  the  five)  it  may  be  that  the 
number  is  due  to  the  unusual  number  of  marriages  the  year 
before.  The  discrepancies  in  the  assessors'  reports  for  the  city, 
however,  indicate  that  the  true  number  for  the  whole  county 

1  A  similar  table  was  prepared  for  the  death  record  by  months. 


CLARK   COUNTY,  OHIO.  49 

must  have  been  over  1,000  in  each  year  since.  1890;  which  would 
make  a  more  uniform  record  for  the  last  decade  at  least. 

When  the  number  of  births  for  1903,  as  reported  (870),  is 
compared  with  the  number  of  persons  under  one  year  of  age 
in  1850  when  the  total  population  was  less  than  one-third  of  the 
present  population,  we  find  a  difference  of  only  124  in  favor  of 
1903.  This  would  indicate  a  birth  rate  for  1903  of  only  14.2  per 
1,000,  while  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  in  1850  was  29.1  per 
1,000.  This  certainly  indicates  some  inaccuracy  in  the  present 
statistics. 

If  the  total  number  of  births  for  the  last  thirty  years  is 
treated  graphically,  the  polygon  of  the  array  indicates  a  slight 
fall  in  the  number  of  births  between  1875  and  1878;  then  for 
six  years  there  is  a  gradual  rise,  reaching  a  maximum  in  1883; 
after  that  year  the  number  remains  high  until  1890,  with  the 
exception  of  a  sudden  fall  in  1888;  since  that  time  the  number 
has  fallen  until  1901,  since  which  time  there  has  been  a  slight 
rise..  In  1900  the  county  birth  rate  according  to  the  assessors' 
returns  was  only  13.70,  a  decrease  of  4.5  from  1890  and  of  almost 
4.5  from  1880.  During  the  past  year  it  was  14.50.  In  order  to 
find  some  more  accurate  means  of  determining  the  fall  in  birth 
rate,  a  plan  somewhat  like  that  of  the  Federal  Census  Bureau 
was  followed.  For  each  of  the  past  two  decades  the  mean 
population  was  calculated  and  also  the  total  number  of  births ; 
on  this  basis  the  annual  average  was  determined.  For  the  first 
of  these  decades  the  rate  was  20.20  per  1,000  and  for  the  last 
(1890-1900)  16.10  per  1,000,  making  a  decrease  of  4.10  in  the 
last  period.  Taking  the  rate  of  1900  at  13.70,  the  fall  from 
the  average  for  1890-1900  has  been  2.40  per  1,000. 

In  order  to  determine  further  the  accuracy  of  these  last 
figures  the  county  returns  were,  increased  by  the  amount  of  dis- 
crepancies between  them  and  the  city  returns.  The  corrected 
returns  make  the  rate  for  1890,  19.20;  that  for  1900,  16.60;  and 
that  for  1902,  16.80  per  1,000;  while  the  corrected  average  for 
the  last  decade  is  18  per  1,000.  This  would  indicate  a  decrease  in 
the  rate  from  1890  to  1900  of  about  3  per  1,000,  and  1.26  from  the 
average  for  the  decade,  with  a  slight  increase,  since  1900.  While 
these  last  figures,  before  being  accepted  as  strictly  accurate,  should 
be  verified  bv  corrections  of  returns  of  rural  assessors,  yet  we 


60  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

may  assert  that  while  there  has  been  a  decrease  in  the  birth  rate, 
it  has  not  been  so  great  as  indicated  by  the  assessors'  returns. 

Coming  now  more  particularly  to  the  city  birth  records  and 
birth  rates,  we  find  it  necessary  to  correct  the  assessors'  returns 
by  using  the  health  office,  reports.  By  doing  this  we  find  for 
example  that  the  rate  in  1900  changes  from  15  to  18  per  1,000. 
There  seems  to  be  an  increasing  amount  of  accuracy  in  reporting 
vital  statistics  in  the  city.  The  city  health  officer  is  doing  all 
in  his  power  to  make  the  returns  accurate.  According  to  his 
reports  the  rate  for  1890  was  21.29,  increasing  to  23  per  1,000 
in  1893,  since  which  time  there  has  beeji  a  decrease.  The  rate 
was  20.40  in  1895 ;  18.86  in  1897;  and  about  17  per  1,000  in  1902. 

(b)  BIRTH    RATE   BY    SEX 

During  the  last  thirty  years  the  males  have  been  in  a  majority 
in  all  except  five  years;  the  average  annual  majority  has  been 
39,  or  an  average  of  52.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  each  year. 
Considering  the  mean  annual  rate  for  males  and  females  during 
the  last  two  decades  by  the  methods  employed  for  the  total  popula- 
tion, we  find  the  mean  annual  rate  for  1880-1890  to  be  20.60  for 
the  males  and  21  for  the  females ;  while  for  the  past  decade  the 
rates  were  16.70  and  15.70  respectively;  this  would  indicate  a  very 
slight  decrease  of  females.  Correcting  the  figures  for  the  past 
decade  by  making  the  fiscal  years  end  at  the  same  time  in  county 
and  city,  this  difference  is  made  much  less.  In  the  city  according 
to  the  health  reports  the  rate  for  males  in  1900  is  19.16,  and  for 
females  17.95;  while  for  1890  the  rates  were.  22.07  an^  20.70 
respectively. 

(c)  BIRTH  RATE  BY  COLOR 

It  is  impossible  to  make  any  estimate  of  the  birth  rate  by 
color  in  Springfield,  since  in  only  one  or  two  years  has  the  health 
department  made  such  a  distinction.  In  1890  the  number  reported 
to  the  health  office  comprised  74  negroes  and  605  whites;  this 
would  mean  a  rate  of  20.85  Per  ijOoo  for  the  colored,  and  20.99 
for  the  whites.  In  1892  the  rates  were  15.26  and  22.62 
respectively.  With  the  exception  of  these  two  years  it  was 
necessary  to  take  the  assessors'  reports  in  order  to  obtain  any 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO.  51 

data  whatever.  Even  then  it  was  necessary  to  arrange  individual 
names  in  groups  according  to  color  and  sex;  by  this  tedious 
method  the  numbers  were  tabulated  for  nine  years.  To  obtain 
any  further  data  than  this  was  impossible  except  by  the  too 
laborious  method  of  going  over  the  county  records  and  selecting 
the  individual  records  pertaining  to  the  city. 

For  the  county,  summaries  were  obtained  from  state  statis- 
tics as  far  back  as  1875.  Each  color  class  presents  striking 
changes  in  birth  rates  in  consecutive  years — changes  too  great  to 
be  accounted  for  except  by  carelessness  in  obtaining  statistics. 
From  1875  to  1880  the  average  rate  was  18.70  for  the  whites 
and  16.95  f°r  tne  negroes ;  from  1880  to  1890,  it  was  20.10  for  the 
whites  and  19.60  for  the  negroes ;  while  in  the  last  decade  the 
rates  were  16.20  and  15.30  respectively.  During  the  past  three 
years  the  rate  has  increased  somewhat  for  the  whites  and  remains 
about  the  same  for  the  colored. 

One  interesting  point  comes  out  in  comparing  the  births 
by  sex  and  color :  namely,  that  while  among  the  whites  the  males 
are  in  the  majority  during  22  out  of  29  years,  the  colored  males 
are  in  the  majority  only  14  out  of  the  29  years.  The  average  an- 
nual excess  of  births  of  white  males  over  white  females  is  33.4; 
while  for  the  colored  population  the  average  excess  of  males  over 
females  is  less  than  one.  According  to  the  returns  the  average 
annual  birth  rate  during  the  last  decade  was  16.90  for  white 
males,  15.60  for  white  females,  14.60  for  colored  male.s  and  16.00 
for  colored  females. 

When  we  compare  the  births  by  months  for  the  past  23 
years  we  find  that  the  majority  of  the  births  occurred  in  March. 
This  month  holds  first  rank  in  the  number  of  births  ten  times  in 
these  years,  and  second  or  third  rank  eight  times ;  more  than  one- 
tenth  of  all  the  births  occurred  in  this  month.  September  ranks 
second,  followed  in  order  by  February,  January,  December  and 
October.  About  28  per  cent,  of  all  the  births  occurred  in  the  first 
three  months  of  the  year.  The  month  with  fewest  births  was  May, 
although  there  were  very  few  more  in  April  and  June.  March 
was  the  chief  birth  month  for  both  white  and  colored ;  but  while 
February  ranked  second  among  the  whites  it  was  fourth  among 
the  colored;  November  held  second  place  among  the  colored. 


52 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


Among  the  whites  January  was  third,  while  September  was  third 
among  the  colored.  For  the  whites  the  chief  birth  months  in 
order  were  March,  February,  January,  December,  and  September ; 
among  the  colored  the  order  was  March,  November,  September, 
February  and  January. 

TABLE  VII. 

Statistics  of  Birth  in  the  County. 


Date. 

73 

9 

O 

EH 

Males. 

Females. 

White. 

Colored. 

02 

£ 

73 
% 

en 

.2 
73 

8 
• 
fi 

CO 
0) 

1 

CO 

,2 
73 

S 
o> 

c 

1875  

759 
721 
717 
685 
759 
765 
852 
801 
1,029 
950 
1,039 
1,001 
1,037 
908 
937 
958 
989 
972 
972 
1,001 
866 
906 
853 
806 
816 
806 
825 
821 
870 

373 
373 
385 
351 
401 
412 
463 
419 
537 
488 
546 
500 
536 
475 
493 
470 
512 
470 
510 
542 
455 
479 
436 
440 
426 
415 
394 
489 
440 

386 
348 
332 
334 
358 
353 
389 
382 
492 
462 
493 
501 
501 
433 
444 
488 
477 
402 
462 
459 
411 
427 
417 
366 
390 
391 
431 
342 
430 

339 
354 
359 
332 
380 
379 
430 
394 
493 
444 
492 
447 
494 
436 
451 
426 
468 
448 
473 
507 
423 
436 
397 
410 
377 
381 
357 
458 
400 

349 
313 
305 
308 
330 
326 
368 
350 
449 
418 
454 
450 
459 
389 
416 
446 
430 
460 
430 
419 
376 
383 
381 
322 
350 
365 
402 
316 
403 

34 
19 
26 
19 
21 
33 
33 
25 
44 
44 
54 
53 
4Z 
39 
42 
44 
44 
22 
37 
35 
32 
43 
39 
30 
49 
34 
37 
31 
40 

37 
35 
27 
26 
28 
27 
21 
32 
43 
44 
39 
51 
42 
44 
28 
42 
47 
42 
32 
40 
35 
44 
36 
44 
40 
26 
29 
26 
27 

1876  

1877  

1878  

1879  

1880  

1881  

1882  

1883  

1884  

1885  

1886  

1887  ,  

1888  

1889  

1890  

1891  

1892  

1893  

1894  

1895  

1896  

1897  

1898  

1899  

1900  

1901  

1902  

1903  

(d)       DEATH   RATES 

The  comparison  of  death  records  as  registered  by  the  city 
board  of  health  and  the  returns  of  the  assessors  point  to  great 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO.  53 

carelessness  in  those  who  collected  such  statistics  for  the  probate 
court:  for  example,  in  1899  there  is  a  difference  of  120  in  the  two 
reports  for  the  city. 

A  table  of  death  records  covering  the  past  30  years  has  been 
made  for  the  total  population,  and  the  population  by  sex,  color, 
and  age.  If  the  numbers  are  accurate  they  show  great  irregu- 
larities ;  for  example,  for  no  apparent  reason  (except  that  there 
was  greater  accuracy  in  the  report  for  1879),  the  number  in- 
creases from  266  in  1878  to  382  in  1879;  and  again  in  1887  the 
number  was  nearly  160  greater  than  in  1886.  The  rate  on  the 
number  given  in  1900  in  the  county  was  8.57  per  1,000;  this  is 
evidently  too  low,  since  the  corrected  returns  for  the  city  alone 
would  leave  only  25  deaths  for  the  rural  population.  From  the 
corrected  returns  the  rate  would  be  a  little  over  10  per  1,000,  still 
probably  too  low.  At  least  there  has  been  a  great  decrease  in 
the  death  rate.  Acording  to  the  number  reported  by  the  Federal 
census,  the  rate  in  1850  was  14.13  per  1,000.  Evidently  there  has 
been  a  decrease  of  three  or  four  per  1,000  in  the  last  fifty  years.  In 
Springfield  the  rate  in  1901  was  11.45. 

In  the  county,  according  to  the  probate  records,  there  has 
been  a  slight  increase  in  the.  rate  for  males  during  the  past  decade 
and  a  slightly  lower  one  for  females.  The  rate  for  the  whites 
remains  practically  the  same  as  in  the  previous  decade,  while 
the  average  rate,  for  the  colored  has  decreased  from  12.20  to  10.70. 
The  general  rate  for  the  colored  population  has  been  about  three 
per  1,000  in  excess  of  that  of  the  whites.  The.  rate  for  the  past 
decade  has  been  two  higher  for  colored  males  than  for  white 
males ;  and  2.3  higher  for  colored  females  than  for  white  females. 

The  comparison  of  deaths  by  months  for  the  past  22  years 
brings  out  the  fact  that  March  holds  first  rank  14  years  out  of 
the  22 ;  one  death  in  every  eight  occurred  in  this  month.  January 
holds  second  place,  and  February  third  rank,  followed  by  Decem- 
ber, August  and  October ;  these  five  months  contain  nearly  half 
of  all  the  deaths.  The  months  with  fewest  deaths  are  June  and 
May.  Based  on  the  average  population  for  these  years,  this 
comparison  shows  a  range  in  death  rate  from  23  in  March  to 
10.4  per  1,000  in  June. 

Comparing  the  relative  number  of  deaths  of  males  and 
females  by  months,  we  find  that  more  deaths  occurred  in  July 


54  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

among  females  than  among  males;  while  in  August  the  males 
have  the  greater  relative  number.  September  occupies  a  relatively 
high  rank  among  females,  due  possibly  to  the  fact  that  September 
is  a  high  birth  month.  October  holds  a  high  rank  for  both  males 
and  females;  while  November  and  December  hold  a  relatively 
higher  place  among  the  males.  Among  the  whites  the  greatest 
number  of  deaths  occurred  in  March,  December,  January,  Feb- 
ruary and  August  in  the  order  named.  ,  The  months  with  fewest 
deaths  among  the  whites  are  October,  May  and  June.  Among 
the  white  males  the  order  of  the  five  highest  months  is  March, 
January,  December,  February,  and  August;  while  among  white 
females  the  order  is  March,  December,  February,  January,  and 
August.  Among  the  white  males,  July,  May  and  June ;  and  among 
the  white  females  April,  May,  and  June  have  the  fewest  deaths. 
Among  the  negroes  the  order  of  months  is  March,  December, 
January,  February  and  April.  August,  which  holds  a  relatively 
high  rank  among  the  whites,  is  the  month  of  fewest  deaths 
among  the  negroes.  The  colored  population  also  has  a  much 
higher  death  rate  than  the  whites  in  October  and  June.1 


1  See  Table  on  following  page. 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO. 

TABLE  VIII. 
Statistics  of  Deaths  in  the  County. 


55 


Date. 

"3 

-w 

£  ' 

Males. 

Females. 

White. 

Colored. 

03 

s, 

"3 

a 

03 
.2 
"3 
S 
f 
fk 

• 

01 

i 

• 
,2 
"3 

a 
g 

&. 

1875 

282 
256 
289 
266 
382 
328 
336 
359 
376 
368 
440 
410 
587 
403 
434 
409 
463 
492 
463 
423 
451 
456 
530 
516 
513 
515 
545 
510 
523 

1876 

1877          .  .  . 

1878 

1879  

157 
165 
162 
181 
206 
178 
210 
222 
306 
219 
233 
225 
244 
243 
267 
235 
244 
249 
297 
281 
284 
285 
273 
283 
321 

125 
163 
174 
178 
170 
190 
230 
188 
281 
184 
201 
184 
219 
249 
196 
188 
207 
207 
233 
235 
229 
230 
272 
227  , 
202 

148 
149 
140 
166 
173 
151 
192 
196 
276 
198 
208 
197 
219 
210 
240 
212 
218 
213 
268 
253 
258 
259 
240 
250 
274 

118 
153 
157 
165 
140 
152 
213 
158 
242 
161 
178 
158 
193 
223 
180 
168 
182 
179 
207 
203 
201 
214 
244 
203 
169 

9 
16 
22 
15 
33 
27 
18 
26 
30 
21 
25 
28 
25 
33 
27 
23 
26 
36 
29 
28 
26 
25 
33 
33 
47 

7 
10 
17 
13 
30 
38 
17 
30 
39 
23 
23 
26 
26 
26 
16 
20 
25 
28 
26 
32 
28 
16 
28 
24 
33 

1880  

1881  

1882  

1883  

1884  

1885  

1886  

1887  

1888  

1889  

1890  

1891  

1892  

1893  ,  

1894  

1895  

1896  

1897  

1898  

1899  t  

1900  

1901  

1902  

1903  

(e)    DEATHS   BY  AGE   CLASSES. 

Of  all  the  deaths  reported  since  1889,  12.2  per  cent,  have  been 
of  persons  under  one  year  of  age;  9.6  per  cent,  under  five;  11.2 
per  cent,  between  5  and  20;  10.1  per  cent,  between  20  and  30; 
12.2  per  cent,  between  30  and  45;  12.9  per  cent,  between  45 
and  60 ;  and  3 1 .8  per  cent  over  60.  The  death  rate  has  decreased 
considerably  for  the  class  under  one  year  of  age;  since  1900 


56  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

the  rate  has  been  less  than  12  per  1,000.  The  per  cent,  of  deaths 
in  the  age  class  above  60  years  has  steadily  increased  from  21 
in  1880  to  29  in  1903.  There  has  been  a  corresponding  increase 
in  the  age  class  45  to  60 ;  while  the  percentage  of  total  deaths  in 
the  classes  30  to  45  years  and  20  to  30  years  remains  practically 
the  same. 

The  following  comparisons  have  been  made  of  the  deaths  by 
age,  sex  and  color  in  the  county  between  1890  and  1900.  Of 
all  those  who  died  under  one  year  55.4  per  cent,  were  males ;  86.9 
per  cent,  were  white ;  55  per  cent,  of  the  whites  and  58  per  cent,  of 
the  colored  were  males.  Of  all  the  deaths  between  the  ages  of 
5  and  10  years,  52.6  per  cent,  were  males;  87.5  per  cent,  were 
white ;  52.8  per  cent,  of  the  whites  and  49  per  cent,  of  the  colored 
were  males.  Just  one-half  of  those  dying  between  5  and  15  years 
of  age  were  males,  84  per  cent,  were  white;  50.1  per  cent,  of  the 
whites  and  42.3  per  cent,  of  the  colored  were  males.  In  the  class 
between  15  and  30  years  the  males  numbered  a  little  over  one-half 
of  the  total ;  86.6  per  cent,  were  white ;  and  52.9  per  cent,  of  the 
whites  and  46.8  of  the  colored  were  males.  More  than  half  (52.1 
per  cent.)  from  30  to  45  years  were  males;  nearly  90  per  cent, 
were  white  and  52.1  per  cent,  of  the  white  and  55.4  per  cent,  of 
the  colored  were  males.  In  the  age  class  from  45  to  60  years  nearly 
59  per  cent,  were  males;  88.8  per  cent,  were  white;  and  58  per 
cent,  of  the  whites  and  62.5  per  cent,  of  the  colored  were  males. 

Fourteen  and  five-tenths  per  cent,  of  all  the  males  who  died 
were,  under  one  year  of  age ;  8.8  per  cent,  between  one  and  five ;  9.6 
per  cent,  between  5  and  20;  9  per  cent,  between  20  and  30;  10.4 
per  cent,  between  30  and  45  ;  14  per  cent,  between  45  and  60 ;  and 
33.7  per  cent,  were  over  60.  Of  all  the  females  who  died  in  this 
period,  14  per  cent,  were  under  one  year  of  age;  9.6  per  cent, 
between  one  and  five;  n  per  cent,  between  5  and  20;  10.7  per 
cent,  between  20  and  30;  11.5  per  cent,  between  30  and  45;  11.9 
per  cent,  between  45  and  60;  and  31.3  per  cent,  were  over  60. 

In  the  first  year  of  life  the  mortality  is  relatively  high  among 
the  colored,  19.16  per  cent,  of  all,  as  against  13.7  per  cent,  of  the 
whites ;  in  the  next  class,  from  one  to  five  years,  the  per  cent,  among 
the  negroes  is  10.5  as  against  9  for  the  whites.  In  the  class  5  to  20 
years  the  mortality  is  again  much  higher  among  the  colored,  14.7 
per  cent,  as  against  10  per  cent,  for  the  whites.  In  the  class  from 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  57 

20  to  30  years  the  percentages  are  12.3  and  9.7  for  the  colored  and 
whites  respectively ;  while  in  the  next  age  class  from  30  to  45  years, 
the  percentages  are  10.3  and  10.9  respectively.  In  the  class  from 
45  to  60  years  the  relative  numbers  are  practically  the  same,  a 
trifle  over  13  per  cent,  in  all. 

When  we  compare  the  deaths  by  age  and  sex  among  the 
whites  we  find  that  in  the  first  year  of  age  the  mortality  is 
almost  the  same,  13.1  per  cent,  of  all  males  and  13.6  per  cent, 
of  all  females ;  also  in  the  next  class,  one  to  five  years,  the  percent- 
age is  9  for  each  sex.  Fewer  males  than  females  died  between 
5  and  20  years,  9.3  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  eleven  per  cent,  of 
the  females.  The  mortality  between  20  and  30  years  is  about  the 
same,  9  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  10  per  cent,  of  the  females ; 
while  in  the  next  class,  30  to  45  years,  the  percentages  were  10  and 
1 1. 6  respectively.  The  mortality  among  men  between  45  and 
60  years  is  much  higher  than  among  women,  14  per  cent,  and  12.7 
per  cent,  respectively.  In  the  class  over  60  occurred  35.6  per  cent, 
of  the  deaths  of  males  and  32.1  per  cent,  of  the  females. 

Among  the  colored,  the  mortality  among  the  males  is  in  the 
first  year  of  life  very  large,  20.8  per  cent,  of  all  as  against  22.2  per 
cent,  of  the  females.  In  the  age  period  I  to  5,  the  percentages 
are  9.7  and  11.5  per  cent.  In  the  next  class,  5  to  20  years,  the 
percentage  of  deaths  of  females  is  very  high,  18.9  per  cent,  as 
against  14.9  per  cent,  of  the  males.  One-tenth  of  all  deaths  among 
the  colored  males  occurred  between  20  and  30  years,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  females  (14.8)  is  again  very  high.  Between  30  and 
45  the  proportions  are  practically  the  same,  10.4  per  cent,  of 
males  and  10.2  per  cent,  of  females.  In  the  class  45  to  60,  the 
percentages  are  15.8  and  n.i  respectively — a  lower  percentage 
than  that  of  either  white  males  or  females. 

(f)    COMPARISON   OF   BIRTH    AND   DEATH    RATES. 

We  may  now  compare  the  birth  and  death  rates  and  draw 
some,  rough  conclusions  concerning  the  nature  of  the  increase  in 
population.  Taking  the  statistics  as  given  by  the  assessors'  re- 
ports, and  remembering  that  the  errors  in  the  returns  for  births 
and  deaths  are  about  the  same,  we  may  notice  first  a  general  de- 
cline in  the  birth  rate  in  the  county  since  1884  of  about  4  per  1,000 ; 


68  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

while  the  death  rate  has  remained  about  the,  same,  and  has  been 
from  6  to  10  less  than  the  birth  rate.  In  the  city  during  the  last 
decade  the  birth  rate  has  varied  from  17  to  22  and  the  death  rate 
from  12  to  15  per  thousand. 

The  decrease  in  birth  rate  among  the  whites  is  about  the  same 
as  for  the  general  population,  and  there  is  a  small  decline  in  the 
death  rate;  the  colored  population  shows  a  relatively  greater  de- 
cline in  birth  rate,  and  during  the  last  decade  a  relative  increase 
in  death  rate.  In  1903.  while  the  birth  rate  for  the  whites  was  6 
greater  than  the  death  rate,  among  the  colored  the  death  rate  was 
about  3  higher  than  the  birth  rate.  In  1902,  the  birth  rate  and 
death  rate  among  the  colored  were  the  same. 

From  1880  to  1890,  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  in  the 
county  was  5,390  or  11.5  per  1,000  annually,  of  the  mean  popula- 
tion for  the  decade.  The  population  of  the  county  actually  in- 
creased 10,329  during  that  decade,  or  an  average  annual  increase 
of  21.9  per  1,000  of  mean  population,  leaving  about  48  per  cent, 
of  the  increase  to  be  accounted  for  by  immigration.  During  the 
last  decade  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  is  more  than  1,000  less 
than  for  the  former  period,  and  the  actual  increase  in  population 
was  6,662,  or  37.5  per  cent,  less  than  the  increase  in  the  former 
decade.  The  increase  in  population  from  1890  to  1900  amounted 
to  an  annual  average  increase  of  12  per  1,000  of  the  mean  popula- 
tion ;  and  the  excess  of  births  equaled  7.4  per  1,000 — thus  leaving 
4.6  in  each  1,000  (or  36.6  per  cent.)  of  the  total  increase  to  be 
accounted  for  by  immigration  from  other  states  or  countries. 

This  excess  of  births  over  deaths  between  1880  and  1890  is 
divided  between  males  and  females  in  the  proportion  of  52.4  and 
47.6  respectively,  and  between  the  whites  and  colored  in  the  pro- 
portions of  94.5  and  5.5  respectively.  The  total  increase  in  popu- 
lation in  the  same  period  is  divided  between  males  and  females 
in  the  proportions  of  47.9  and  52.1  respectively  and  between  the 
white  and  colored  in  the  proportions  89.7  and  10.3  respectively. 
During  the  last  decade  the  excess  of  births  was  made  up  of  49.4  per 
cent,  males  and  50.6  females ;  and  of  94.2  per  cent,  white  and  5.8 
colored;  while  the  total  increase  in  population  consisted  of  55.4 
per  cent,  males  and  44.6  females — a  very  great  relative  increase 
of  males  over  the  previous  period,  and  91  per  cent,  white  and 
9  per  cent,  colored. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  59 

From  1880  to v  1 890  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  of  all 
males  amounted  to  an  annual  average  of  11.7  per  1,000  of  the  mean 
population,  and  the  total  increase  equaled  20.7  per  1,000,  leaving 
43.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  increase  of  males  to  be  accounted  for  by 
immigration.  During  the  past  ten  years  the  excess  of  births  over 
deaths  of  the  males  equaled  7.4  per  1,000  annually,  and  the  total 
increase  12.9  per  1,000,  leaving  42.6  per  cent,  of  the  increase  to 
immigration. 

In  the  first  of  these  periods  the  average  annual  excess  of 
births  over  deaths  of  all  females  was  13.5  per  1,000  and  the  total 
average  increase  23.2  per  1,000,  leaving  46.1  per  cent,  to  immi- 
gration ;  while  during  the  last  period  the  average  excess  of  births 
was  7.8  and  the  total  increase  n.i  per  1,000,  leaving  29.7  per  cent, 
of  the  total  increase  to  immigration. 

For  the  whites  in  the  first  period  the  annual  excess  of  births 
equaled  11.5  and  the  total  increase  22  per  1,000,  leaving  47.8  per 
cent,  of  the  total  increase  to  immigration.  From  1890  to  1900 
the  average  annual  excess  of  births  was  7.7  and  the  total  increase 
11.7  per  1,000,  so  that  but  34.2  per  cent,  was  due  to  immigration. 
In  the  first  decade  the  annual  excess  of  births  among  the  colored 
averaged  7.4  per  1,000  and  the  total  increase  23.3,  so  that  68.3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  increase  was  due  to  immigration ;  in  the  last 
decade  the  annual  excess  of  births  averaged  4.6,  and  the  total  in- 
crease 12.3  per  1,000,  leaving  62.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  increase 
due  to  immigration. 

From  1890  to  1900,  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  increase  of  white 
males,  and  26.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  increase  of  white  females 
were  due  to  immigration ;  while  77.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  increase 
of  colored  males  and  36.5  per  cent,  of  the  increase  of  colored 
females  were  owing  to  immigration. 


60  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


CHAPTER  II.    THE  SOCIAL  MIND 
Section  1.    The  County 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  physical  environment  in  the 
Great  Miami  Valley  has  greatly  influenced  the  formation  and 
growth  of  the  mental  characteristics  of  the  social  population  in 
this  region. 

In  the  first  place,  every  part  of  the  region  is  easily  accessible, 
and  the  natural  means  of  communication  are  excellent.  Thus 
there  has  been  in  the  physical  environment  no  hindrance  to  the 
assimilation  of  social  elements. 

Other  conditions,  too,  were  present  at  the  outset  for  the  ready 
assimilation  of  the  earlier  immigration  into  the  county.  There 
was  the  consciousness  of  a  common  purpose  in  coming  to  the 
new  country ;  and  the  knowledge  of  common  experiences,  common 
trials  and  difficulties  in  the  new  environment;  hence  this  new 
life  speedily  developed  a  great  degree  of  conscious  sympathy. 
During  the  first  thirty  or  forty  years  of  the  county's  history 
there  was  absolutely  no  barrier  to  a  complete  assimilation  of 
feelings,  tastes  and  ideas.  In  the  first  place  there  were  no  relig- 
ious or  racial  barriers  to  the  complete  amalgamation  of  existing 
elements.  In  each  township  could  be  found  immigrants  from 
Virginia,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York ;  or  from  England,  Ireland 
and  Germany.  Before  1835  there  were  no  religious  beliefs  repre- 
sented except  the  Presbyterian,  Methodist,  and  "New  Lights." 
Of  course  these  latter  elements  were  austere  in  character,  dog- 
matic, and  uncompromising  in  religious  belief.  It  was  the  era  of 
the  old-fashioned  love,  feast  with  closed  doors,  even  to  those 
who  came  a  moment  after  the  appointed  hour ;  and  when  the  old- 
fashioned  view  of  predestination  was  a  reality  to  every  Presby- 
terian belie.ver.  In  political  belief  there  was  the  same  dogmatism, 
the  same  uncompromising  attitude;  but  the  bonds  of  union  be- 
tween those  of  unlike  political  or  religious  faith,  formed  by  the 
stress  of  common  physical  need,  were  developed  and  strengthened 
by  the  frequent  meetings  for  economic  and  social  purposes. 

The  harvest  season  always  brought  great  numbers  of  men 
together  for  co-operative  work.  Other  sorts  of  meetings  were 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  61 

the  barn  raisings  and  log  rollings.  The  women  had  their  quilting 
and  sewing  bees,  and  both  sexes  met  at  the  corn  huskings  and 
"butcherings."  Every  neighborhood  had  its  spelling  school  and 
singing  school;  and  the  debating  clubs,  "literaries,"  and  "lyce- 
ums,"  were  as  numerous  as  the  women's  clubs  of  today.  In  fact 
these  societies  and  clubs  were  little  clearing  houses  for  the  inter- 
change and  spread  of  ideas  and  opinions — political,  economic, 
and  religious.  At  these  meetings  Presbyterians,  Methodists, 
Whigs,  and  Democrats  came  together  for  deliberation;  and  this 
social  intercourse  was  undoubtedly  a  great  force,  in  softening  and 
modifying  political  and  religious  prejudices.  Long  before  the 
Civil  War  period  the  people  of  the  county  had  become  practically 
homoge.neous.  Before  that  period  there  were  scarcely  any  new 
elements  in  the  population  with  the  exception  of  a  few  Catholics, 
Dunkards.  and  Quakers,  who  came  during  the  fifties.  The  best 
example  of  the  spontaneous  response  to  any  common  stimulus  in 
those  days  is  shown  in  the  effect  of  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter, 
and  the  call  for  troops.  Within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  call 
two  companies  were  organized  in  Clark  County  for  immediate 
service ;  while  the  devotion  of  the  women  and  men  at  home  to  the 
common  cause  was  remarkable. 

Since  the  Civil  War  new  conditions  have  arisen.  New  glottic 
elements  have  entered  in,  especially  in  the  city;  new  sects  have 
sprung  up  as  a  result  of  migrations  from  other  sections  of  the 
country.  In  the  rural  districts  there  are  those  peculiar  religious 
sects  mentioned  in  another  section,  such  as  the  Mennonites,  River 
Brethren,  and  Saints. 

The  older  members  of  these  sects  still  cling  to  the  old  ideas 
of  dress,  personal  adornment,  and  social  intercourse.  Many  of 
them  still  hold  aloof  from  any  sort  of  political  gathering,  or  from 
voting ;  but  they  fail  to  hold  their  young  men  and  women.  The 
young  women  marry  men  of  other  and  more  liberal  sects.  There 
is  a  mingling  of  youth  in  these  sects  with  other  youths  in  the  . 
school  which  is  probably  the  strongest  force  in  changing  their 
views  and  opinions.  Many  of  the  youth  go  to  high-school,  and 
to  college.,  and  of  course  lose  the  narrow  views  of  their  fathers. 
Even  the  younger  men  and  women  who  remain  in  the  church 
have  modified  their  views.  Many  take  part  in  politics.  Tele- 


62  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

phones  and  many  other  modern  "worldly"  conveniences  are 
found  in  their  homes ;  they  read  the  daily  and  weekly  newspapers, 
and  many  read  the  current  magazines.  The  introduction  of  the 
suburban  electric  lines  and  the  establishment  of  free  rural  mail 
routes  have  undoubtedly  hastened  the  changes  already  begun  in 
these  communities.  The  electric  lines  now  give  ready  and  conven- 
ient access  to  Dayton,  Springfield,  Columbus,  and  Cincinnati, 
and  they  are  patronized  to  a  very  great  extent. 

What  has  been  said  of  one  of  these  more  exclusive  sects 
can  be  said  of  all  in  the  county — the  spirit  of  exclusiveness  and 
the  peculiar  tenets  held  are  slowly  being  modified  and  pervaded 
by  a  broader  spirit  of  sympathy  and  co-operation.  One  sees 
fewer  examples  of  the  austere  type  of  character,  and  less  of  the 
dogmatic  in  religious  belief.  Indeed,  this  is  true  of  all  sects  in 
the  rural  districts.  Very  few  of  the  religious  sects  in  the  rural 
districts  are  doing  more  than  holding  their  own.  One  of  the 
presiding  elders  of  the  Methodist  Church  in  this  conference  says : 
"Can  we  supplement  the  country  work?  Barring  out  an  excep- 
tion or  two,  you  will  scarcely  find  a  branch  of  Zion  flourishing 
enough  to  be  a  contented  resting  place  for  the  dove  from  the 
ark.  There  ought  to  be  a  fund  created  to  put  into  the  field  a 
force  strong  enough  to  save  our  neglected  fields  and  help  to 
stop  the  awful  tide  of  Sabbath  desecration  which  is  cursing  the 
youth  with  a  godless  education." 

The  older  element,  the  backbone  of  the  churches,  point  to 
the  electric  lines  as  the  chief  cause  of  the  neglect  of  the  church 
by  the  young  men.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause,  there  is  certainly 
a  strong  and  growing  apathy  toward  the  church  on  the  part  of 
young  men,  especially  in  the  little  villages.  The  statistics  of 
church  growth  show  this  and  a  visit  to  the  villages  on  any  Sunday 
confirms  the  truth  of  the  statement. 

This  apathy  is  due  to  two  causes.  First  is  that  class  of 
people,  old  and  young,  who  form  the  best  element  of  the  rural 
population,  generally  the  children  of  parents  of  the  austere  type, 
and  who  are  rationally  conscientious.  They  are  generally  in 
sympathy  with  the  church  and  its  work,  but  will  not  become 
members,  because  of  quarrels  or  dissensions  in  their  local 
churches.  This  class  is  almost  exclusively  rural.  As  a  class 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO.  63 

they  are  intelligent,  economically  progressive,  politically  conserva- 
tive, with  high  moral  sentiments.  There  is  not  a  township  in 
the  county  where  the  exclusively  rural  population  is  in  the 
majority,  in  which  there  is  a  single  saloon. 

The  second  class  is  found  chiefly  in  the  little  villages.  There 
the  process  of  social  selection  has  been  going  on  for  years.  The 
young  people  who  would  be  the  natural  feeders  of  the  churches 
have  gone  to  the  cities,  and  these,  same  persons  are  naturally 
the  most  progressive.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that 
during  the  past  fifteen  years  these  villages  have  suffered  a  decline 
in  moral  tone  and  vigor.  Many  writers  have  pointed  to  the 
influence  of  European  immigration  as  a  cause  of  the  growing 
laxity  in  Sunday  observance.  This  may  be  one  cause,  but  it  is 
not  the  only  one.  One  has  only  to  visit  the  little  hamlets  in  the 
Miami  Valley  which  have  been  scarcely  touche.d  by  foreign  immi- 
gration to  witness  a  great  and  growing  laxity  in  Sunday  observ- 
ance. This  village  population  is  not  indifferent  to  the  church 
because  of  high  moral  opinions,  or  conscientious  motives,  but 
because  it  is  actuated  solely  by  the  pleasures  of  the  senses,  and 
by  the  economic  motive  in  life.  It  is  attracted  by  the  peculiar 
or  the  sensational  in  religious  services.  It  is  convivial  in  char- 
acter, easy-going,  accommodating  itself  to  surroundings,  with- 
out any  particular  desire  or  effort  to  change  its  environment. 

In  general  the  rural  communities  are  conservative  in  opinion. 
The  idea  that  a  farmer's  boy  needed  more  than  a  common  school 
education  was,  until  not  very  many  years  ago,  well  nigh  universal ; 
but  the  opinion  is  growing  that  the  farmer  boy  as  well  as  his  city 
brother  needs  a  higher  education.  There  are  several  reasons  for 
this  change  in  opinion.  One  is,  the  introduction  of  a  township 
board  of  education,  instead  of  the  old  local  district  board  of 
directors,  which  until  a  dozen  years  ago  was  sovereign  in  the 
school  district.  This  new  idea  was  slow  in  entering  the  minds 
of  the  people,  but  it  now  seems  to  be  firmly  established.  Indeed, 
a  few  are  ready  to  take  the  next  step  and  to  establish  a  county 
board  of  school  supervision.  This  new  form  of  board  led  to  de- 
liberation in  many  districts  over  course  of  study,  text-books,  and 
supervision.  Two  townships,  Green  and  Madison,  held  out 
longest  against  the  idea  of  supervision;  but  now  all  the  town- 


64  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

ships  have  supervision  of  some  sort.  The  consolidation  of  courses 
of  study  led  to  township  commencement  days,  and  these  to  the 
idea  that  there  should  be  higher  branches  taught  to  those  who 
wished  them.  Another  reason  for  the  more  advanced  opinions 
on  education  has  been  the  increased  reading  of  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers  and  current  magazines,  with  the  development  of 
the  free  rural  mail  routes.  The  increase  in  the  circulation  of 
newspapers  and  periodicals  has  been  wonderfully  rapid.  Prob- 
ably another  reason  is  the  development  of  more  improved  means 
of  communication  through  the  introduction  of  the  trolley  and 
telephone.  Five  years  ago  there  were  very  few,  if  any.  telephones 
in  the  rural  communities;  today  there  is  scarcely  a  farm  house 
without  one.  All  these  things  must  have  a  decided  effect  upon 
the  opinions  and  ideas  of  the  population.  The  desire  for  centraliza- 
tion of  schools  grows  very  slowly.  It  is  difficult  even  yet  for 
the  average  person  to  see  anything  better  than  his  local  district 
school.  Springfield  township  tried  the  plan  of  centralizing  two 
schools,  but  since  the  combined  schools  were  placed  in  one  room 
and  with  only  one  teacher,  the  plan  failed,  and  gave  to  many  a 
wrong  idea  of  the  real  meaning  and  advantages  of  centralization. 
The  failure  of  this  plan  has  set  back  the  adoption  of  any  such 
idea  for  many  years.  However,  the  desire  for  secondary  educa- 
tion is  growing.  Twenty  years  ago  very  few  youth  in  the  rural 
districts  thought  of  going  to  high  school  or  college ;  today  there  is 
scarcely  a  household  with  children  of  proper  age  where  one  or 
more  is  not  taking  advantage  of  the  chance  for  secondary  educa- 
tion. 

Newspapers  and  magazines  have  largely  taken  the  place  of 
the  old  "literary"  and  lyceum,  as  a  means  of  conveying  informa- 
tion, and  strengthening  or  modifying  sentiments  and  ideas.  The 
debating  club  is  a  thing  of  the  past;  indeed  there  are  very  few 
social  clubs  of  any  kind  in  the  rural  districts.  The  means  for 
association  are  fewer  than  in  the  past  with  its  old-time  co-opera- 
tive harvest  work.  The  annual  county  fair  is  probably  the 
chief  place  of  gathering  and  meeting,  for  the  renewal  of  acquaint- 
ance and  exchange  of  ideas.  This  is  one  of  the  county's  most 
important  institutions  and  one  that  holds  chief  place  in  the  mind 
of  the  rural  population. 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO.  65 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  as  much  neighborly  economic 
co-operation  as  formerly,  since  three  or  four  men  can  now  do 
the  necessary  work  in  wheat  or  hay  harvest.  Improved  machinery 
everywhere  has  lessened  the  demand  for  human  labor.  There  is 
not  any  great  desire  on  the  part  of  the  farming  community  to 
join  any  extensive  co-operative  movement  such  as  the  Grange. 
There  is  now  a  Grange  organization  in  Clark  County,  but  it  is 
weak.  There  are  stated  meetings  of  one  small  association,  but 
there  is  no  attempt  to  engage  in  any  practical  co-operative  work. 
When  the  Grange  was  first  organized  in  the  seventies,  there  was 
great  enthusiasm  in  the  whole  county,  and  many  local  co-operative 
lodges  were  formed,  but  there  also  arose  disputes,  and  jealousies, 
and  the  whole  movement  soon  died  out. 


Section  2.    The  City 

We  find  conditions  somewhat  different  in  the  city  from 
those  existing  in  the  rural  communities.  A  student  of  the  social 
institutions  of  Toronto,  Canada,  has  well  said:  "The  modern 
city  is  an  economic,  a  political,  a  moral  phenomenon,  the  delight 
of  the  social  student  and  the  nightmare  of  every  decent  reformer. 
It  lacks  the  monumental  grandeur  of  the  primitive  city.  It  lacks 
the  civic  spirit  of  the  classic  city.  It  lacks  the  municipal  func- 
tions of  the  medieval  city.  It  easily  surpasses  the  greatest 
cities  of  time  in  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  the  conglomerate 
character  of  its  elements  and  the  masterly  array  of  its  problems. 
The  primitive  city  was  an  aggregation.  The  modern  city  is  an' 
aggravation.  The  classic  city  was  a  social  state,  the  modern  city 
is  real  estate.  The  medieval  city  was  defensive,  but  the  modern 
city  is  offensive  in  the  extreme." 

What  we  have  said  concerning  the  growth  of  homogeneity, 
intelligence  and  common  ideas  in  the  country  before  the  Civil 
War  period,  applies  also  to  Springfield.  Since,  that  period,  as 
already  noted,  new  racial  elements  have  come  in  and  have  com- 
plicated the  problems  of  the  complete  assimilation,  and  develop- 
ment of  mental  and  moral  ideas. 

The  first  and  most  important  barrier  to  a  complete  tolera- 


66  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

tion  and  conscious  sympathy  is  that  of  color  race.  There  is 
practically  no  amalgamation  of  the  two  elements.  There  are  a 
few  cases  of  intermarriage  between  white  and  colored ;  and,  in 
at  least  a  few  of  such  alliances,  the  contracting  parties  are  not 
moral  reprobates.  In  two  cases  coming  under  our  observation, 
the  white  girls  who  had  married  colored  men  were  considered 
quiet,  refined  persons.  The  attitude  of  both  races  toward  these 
alliances  is  one  of  intense  bitterness.  The  parties  to  such  con- 
tracts are  socially  ostracized  by  the.  whites,  and  they  themselves 
will  not  (if  they  are  permitted)  associate  with  the  colored. 

This  animosity  on  the  part  of  the  whites  toward  the  colored 
is  strong  and  growing;  and  on  the  part  of  the  colored  race  there 
is  a  growing  jealousy  of  rights,  real  or  supposed.  It  is  manifest 
everywhere.  In  the  public  schools  the  separation  of  colored  and 
white  children  was  abolished  twenty  years  ago;  and  the  plan 
has  been  provocative  of  trouble.  Oftentimes  white  parents  refuse 
to  permit  their  children  to  sit  by  the  colored  in  the  school  room ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  many  colored  parents  are  so  jealous  of 
their  social  rights  that  they  object  to  any  approach  to  a  plan  of 
so  seating  the  children  in  the  school  room  as  to  bring  them  in  a 
group  by  themselves.  Before  mixed  schools  were  introduced, 
there  were  colored  teachers,  but  now  it  would  be  almost  impossible 
to  persuade  any  school  board  to  elect  a  colored  instructor,  and 
there  have  been  none  since  separate  schools  were  abolished.  In 
this  respect  Springfield  differs  from  her  neighbor,  Columbus, 
where  a  few  colored  teachers  are  employed. 

The  same  conditions  prevail  in  politics.  The  colored  vote 
is  solicited  by  both  parties,  and  the  colored  voter  coddled;  but 
when  it  comes  to  giving  offices  to  the  colored  voter  or  politician, 
that  is  quite  another  thing.  The  only  elective  county  office  ever 
given  to  a  colored  man  is  that  of  infirmary  director.  A  deputy 
auditor  and  deputy  clerk  have  been  taken  from  the  colored 
people;  and,  be  it  said,  they  have  been  efficient  officers.  In  the 
city,  colored  men  have  been  appointed  to  minor  offices,  including 
that  of  policeman,  but  the  sentiment  is  strong  against  electing  any 
colored  man  to  council,  school  board,  or  any  other  important 
office.  There  is  a  growing  sentiment  fostered,  by  the  colored 
clergy  and  the  colored  professional  men,  that  the  time  has  come 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  67 

when  the  colored  voters  should  have  a  chance  at  the  offices. 
The  sentiment  has  been  manifested  in  city  elections,  but  as  yet 
has  had  no  practical  result. 

This  animosity  may  be  seen  again  in  the  industrial  world. 
There  are  very  few  negroes  in  the  labor  unions.  Employers, 
whether  in  shop  or  store,  will  seldom  employ  a  colored  man  except 
for  common,  unskilled  labor.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  it  is  very 
difficult  for  even  the  educated  negro  to  find  employment  as  a 
skilled  laborer.  There  is  very  little  association  of  the  two  races 
in  society,  in  the  churches  or  secret  orders. 

In  our  opinion  the  better  element  at  least  of  the  colored  popu- 
lation does  not  seek  recognition  in  church  or  club.  The  conflict 
appears  chiefly  in  the  schools,  in  politics,  and  in  economic  life. 
Among  the  older  colored  citizens  there  seems  to  be  a  growing 
desire  for  cultural  associations  similar  to  those  of  the  whites.  A 
short  time  ago  a  co-operative  association  was  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  publishing  a  weekly  newspaper  devoted  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  race,  but  its  success  is  a  question. 

Those  who  have  recently  come  from  the  South  are  naturally 
the  most  ignorant,  and  they  come  here  so  that  they  may  have  a 
"chance  to  vote."  Many  of  them  form  a  part  of  the  pauper 
class.  We  cannot  agree  with  the  observation  made  by  the  author 
of  the  Sandy  Springs  study  that  the  moral  condition  of  the  negro 
is  lower  than  in  1865.  The  extent  of  pauperism  and  the  willing- 
ness to  live  on  charity  is  great,  yet  there  are  hopeful  features  in 
the  situation.  The  number  of  educated  negroes  is  increasing,  and 
the  opinion  of  these  must  have  an  influence  on  the  others.  Un- 
doubtedly the  city  high-school  has  been  an  influence  for  good  in 
cultivating  higher  ideals  among  the  colored.  Undoubtedly  the 
great  majority  of  colored  pupils  in  the  high-school  become  quiet, 
self-respecting,  self-controlled,  and  law-abiding  citizens. 

The  problem  of  the  complete  assimilation  of  the  ethnic  races 
is  still  present  in  this  city.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the 
Protestant  Germans  and  their  readiness  to  unite  with  the  native 
stock.  They  do  not  cling  to  linguistic  traditions  as  much 
as  do  the  Catholic  Germans.  They  prefer  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  the  public  schools,  and,  are  rapidly  assimilating  with 
the  native  stock.  Religion  presents  no  barrier  to  intermarriage 


C»S  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

with  other  stocks  and  other  sects.  The  Catholic  Germans  cling 
more  tenaciously  to  language  and  to  religious  traditions.  Indeed, 
religious  traditions  are  more  powerful  than  the  linguistic,  for  there 
are  frequent  marriages  with  Irish  Catholics;  while  there  are 
comparatively  few  with  German  Protestants.  The  German  Cath- 
olic school  is  largely  patronized  and  every  effort  is  made  to  keep 
the  children  there,  although  many  pupils  go  from  this  school  to 
the  public  high-school.  The  German  Catholics  are  more  con- 
servative in  every  way  than  are  the  German  Protestants. 

In  other  portions  of  this  study  we  have  already  referred  to 
many  events  which  have  aided  in  bringing  about  a  closer  co- 
operation and  in  stimulating  sympathy  and  common  feelings. 
One  of  the  prominent  examples  of  co-operation,  and  most  far- 
reaching  in  its  effects  was  the  Temperance  Crusade  in  the  early 
seventies.  The  enthusiasm  for  a  temperance  crusade  spread  from 
Hillsboro,  Ohio,  to  Springfield  in  February,  1874.  Through  the 
influence  of  a  sermon  in  the  Presbyterian  church,  the  women 
determined  to  begin  a  crusade  against  the  saloons.  They  went 
in  bands,  visiting  the  saloons  and  holding  street  prayer  meetings. 
One  venerable  -  woman,  who  took  part  in  the  crusade,  says : 
"One  of  the  blessings  of  the  crusade  was  that  the  women  of  the 
different  denominations  came  together  in  a  closer  bond  of  union 
than  ever  before."  Many  of  the  most  prominent  women  of  the 
city  engaged  in  the  crusade,  and  one  of  the  chief  was  "Mother" 
Stewart,  who  later  went  from  town  to  town  to  lecture  on  temper- 
ance work.  The  pastors  of  all  the  churches  gave  their  help,  and 
the  editor  of  the  chief  city  newspaper  aided  the  cause  by  frequent 
editorials.  At  the  close  of  the  crusade  came  the  months  of  the 
great  "Murphy  meetings,"  when  many  hundreds  signed  the 
pledge. 

The  day  for  such  emotional  revivals  seems  to  have  almost 
gone  by.  Very  few  of  the  churches  in  this  day  hold  any  more 
of  the  old-fashioned  revival  meetings. 

A  more  recent  response  to  a  common  stimulus  occurred  in 
1902  on  the  occasion  of  the  great  fire  which  destroyed  the  old 
Whitely  East  street  shops.  The  sympathies  of  the  people  of  all 
classes  were,  stirred,  and  the  response  was  quick  among  rich  and 
poor  to  aid  the  small  manufacturers  in  rebuilding  their  shops 
and  in  giving  work  to  the  laborers  affected. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  69 

These  illustrations  reveal  a  strong  emotional  nature  in  this 
people,  easily  excited,  but  needing  almost  a  constant  stimulation 
of  the  feelings  in  order  to  lead  to  action. 

As  in  many  another  American  city,  the  social  ideal  in  Spring- 
field has  been  the  economic.  The  population  has  been  more 
largely  interested  in  its  immediate  economic  welfare  than  in  the 
development  of  civic  beauty  or  the  expansion  of  the  moral  life 
of  the  community.  On  the  material  side,  however,  there  is  a 
growing  desire  for  good  streets  and  cleaner  ones,  for  a  better 
sewerage  system  and  for  improved  sanitary  conditions. 

Whether  there  has  been  a  development  of  the  mental  and 
moral  life,  and  whether  there  is  reason  to  believe  in  the  future 
development  of  a  higher  life,  are  questions  which  cannot  be  an- 
swered quantitatively.  The  people  are  quick  to  feel,  but  slow  in 
action.  This  characteristic  is  illustrated  by  the  sentiment  stirred 
up  against  the  Big  Four  Railroad  on  account  of  recent  accidents 
at  railroad  crossings.  At  the  time  of  different  fatal  accidents 
the  newspapers  reflected  the  indignation  of  the  people  at  the  negli- 
gence of  the  railroad  in  not  providing  safety  gates  or  watchmen, 
but  at  the  time  of  this  writing  public  opinion  has  not  been  strong 
enough  to  enforce  existing  laws  and  ordinances  governing  such 
matters.  The  city  seems  to  be  in  a  state  of  transition.  As  one 
man  expressed  it :  "It  has  reached  the  full  stature  of  a  city,  but 
still  retains  many  of  the  characteristics  of  village  days." 

When  one  studies  the  development  of  moral  ideas,  of  the 
social  spirit,  and  of  the  social  conscience,  his  opinion  will  depend 
largely  on  his  point  of  view.  Judging  from  the  results  of  the 
last  spring  election,  one  would  believe  that  the  city  desired  a 
wide  open  town,  with  a  lax  administration  of  the  laws  and  ordi- 
nances regulating  saloons  and  gambling  houses,  and  one  would 
believe  that  the  general  opinion  is  that  the  city  exists  for  the 
good  of  the  party  spoilsman.  The  desire  for  such  conditions  is 
not  confined  to  one  political  party,  but  to  that  element  in  both 
parties  which  desires  a  "liberal"  administration.  The  town  has 
certainly  been  "wide  open."  Saloons  are  open  every  day  and 
night,  with  no  regard  for  closing  ordinances.  If  one  may 
judge  from  the  utterances  of  one  of  the  newspapers,  the  gam- 
bling spirit  has  been  rampant  and  unrestrained.  Even  when 


70  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

indicted,  saloon-keepers  have  found  some  successful  way  to  escape 
punishment.  The  Law  and  Order  League  has  been  active  in  seek- 
ing to  bring  law-breaking  saloon-keepers  to  punishment,  but  they 
have  not  been  very  successful,  probably  because  they  have  been 
unfortunate  enough  to  employ  an  agent  who  himself  was  not 
scrupulous  in  his  method  of  getting  cases  against  the  law- 
breakers. 

Judging  again  from  the  growth  of  the  churches  and  church 
attendance,  one  may  notice  a  growing  indifference  on  the  part 
of  working  men  toward  the  church  and  to  the  call  of  the 
church.  In  most  of  the  churches  the  laboring  man  is  conspicuous 
by  his  absence.  Indeed,  this  apathy  toward  the  church  is  strong 
everywhere.  Many  of  the  churches  have  done  nothing  more  than 
hold  their  own  during  the  past  ten  years.  People  are  attracted 
in  great  crowds  to  hear  some  noted  evangelist,  but  regular  church 
services  fail  to  attract  them. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  evidences  of  mental  and  moral 
growth  and  the  development  of  a  larger  spirit  of  conscious  sym- 
pathy. There  is  greater  independence  of  thought  and  a  more 
liberal  spirit  in  all  the  churches.  There  is  a  greater  feeling  of 
sympathy  and  a  larger  co-operation  among  the  churches  than  ever 
before.  This  is  manifest  in  the  frequent  united  efforts  of  the 
churches  to  attain  various  purposes.  Those  of  the  clergy  who  have 
turned  their  attention  to  the  social  regeneration  of  men  and  to  the 
social  nature  and  duties  of  men,  have  generally  met  with  a  prompt 
response  from  the  people.  One  illustration  of  the  change  in  front 
of  a  religious  organization  is  furnished  by  one  of  the  city  churches 
in  which  but  six  or  seven  years  ago  a  reference  to  social  subjects 
was  tabooed,  but  where,  for  the  last  two  years,  an  organized  study 
has  been  made, of  socialism,  and  social  subjects.  Indeed,  this 
organization  has  attracted  attention  and  interest  in  many  other 
churches,  and  has  suggested  similar  associations  elsewhere. 

In  the  political  parties  there  is  an  increasing  number  of  men 
that  are  independent  in  politics  to  the  extent  of  recognizing  prin- 
ciples as  paramount,  and  who  in  local  affairs  look  upon  the  city 
as  a  business  corporation,  and  to  be  operated  as  such.  This  spirit 
is  manifest  in  the  discussions  of  the  various  literary  clubs  of  the 
city.  There  is  a  growing  interest  in  scientific,  social  and  historical 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  71 

subjects,  and  one  indication  of  this  growth  is  the  increased  use  of 
books  on  such  subjects  in  the  public  library. 

All  of  these  influences  must  bring  about  better  and  higher 
ideals  of  municipal  beauty  and  public  morality;  and  yet  there 
is  a  vast  deal  to  be  done  before  there  is  realized  in  the  fullest 
measure  the  ideals  of  physical  beauty  and  civic  righteousness. 
Indeed,  as  one  surveys  the  city  at  this  stage  of  its  growth,  he 
realizes  that  it  is  a  long  journey  yet  towards  the  realization  of 
the  idea  that  society  in  the  city  as  elsewhere  exists  for  the  good 
of  each  social  unit,  and  that  each  individual  unit  exists  for  the 
good  of  all.  There  still  remains  a  great  work  for  the  schools 
and  churches  of  the  city  to  develop  that  true  manhood  and  woman- 
hood which  shall  find  the  greatest  individual  safety  and  freedom, 
and  the  highest  well  being  only  in  becoming  completely  socialized. 


72  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


CHAPTER  III.    THE  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 
Section  1.    The  County 

We  now  come  to  consider  those  forms  of  association  which 
are  almost  entirely  the  products  of  mental  phenomena.  Each 
one  of  these  forms  of  association  implies  a  certain  degree  of 
mental  and  moral  resemblance  and  a  growing  consciousness  of 
likeness. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  speak  of  the  public  associations 
of  the  people  of  Clark  County  for  political  and  economic  pur- 
poses. In  this  section  of  Ohio,  the  people,  influenced  by  political 
traditions  in  Virginia,  made  the  county  the  most  important  sub- 
division of  the  state.  The  minor  organizations  are  the  town- 
ships and  school  districts.  The  chief  functions  of  the  town- 
ships are  administrative,  and  are  controlled  by  trustees;  their 
work  consists  in  the  repair  of  minor  roads  and  bridges,  and  in 
the  care  of  the  outdoor  poor.  The  township  judiciary  consists  of 
the  justice  of  the  peace  court,  which  tries  petty  civil  and  criminal 
cases. 

The  county  is  chiefly  an  economic  organization.  Clark 
County  was  created  by  act  of  the  legislature  in  1817.  Besides  the 
sheriff,  whose  duties  we  need  not  describe,  the  chief  administrative 
officers  are  the  commissioners,  auditor,  recorder,  and  treasurer. 
The  commissioners  build  and  repair  county  roads,  bridges,  and 
public  buildings,  and  have  general  supervision  of  the  affairs  of  the 
county.  The  county  selects  officers  to  carry  out  the  provisions 
for  the  care  of  the  poor  and  for  children's  homes.  Clark  County 
has  established  both  an  infirmary  for  adults,  and  a  children's 
home ;  the  officers  of  the  infirmary  are  elected  by  the  people  and 
those  of  the  children's  home  are  appointive.  The  one  county 
court  is  the  common  pleas,  which  tries  both  civil  and  criminal 
cases.  The  probate  court  is  chiefly  a  court  of  record  for  vital 
statistics,  and  for  the  filing  and  administration  of  wills. 

(a)    MARRIAGES  AND  CONJUGAL  CONDITION. 

The  relative  numbers  of  marriages  during  the  last  thirty 
years,  with  the  exception  of  four  years  from  1881  to  1885,  do  not 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  73 

present  any  great  variations.  For  convenience  of  comparison, 
the  number  for  each  year  has  been  based  on  the  population  per 
1,000.  The  mode  for  the  last  thirty  years  has  been  a  little  over 
nine  per  1,000,  and  the  average  has  been  9.1.  Certainly  the  de- 
crease in  birth  rate  is  not  due  to  the  relative  decrease  in  mar- 
riages. The  marriage  rate  in  1850  was  7.5  per  1,000;  in  1875 
9.2;  and  in  1903,  9.3.  In  general,  the  increase  or  decrease,  from 
the  mean  follows  the  industrial  conditions  in  successive  years. 
The  greatest  number  referred  to  above  occurred  in  the  climax  of 
the  industrial  boom  in  Springfield. 

Since  1898  a  record  has  been  kept  of  marriages  by  color. 
This  record  shows  that  during  the  last  six  years  the  number  of 
marriages  among  the  colored  has  been  relatively  much  greater 
than  among  the  whites.  In  1903  the  rate  was  8.6  for  the  whites 
and  15.9  for  the  colored;  in  1902,  9.4  for  the  whites  and  13.7 
for  the  colored.  WJiile  in  1900  the  colored  inhabitants  were  8.9 
per  cent,  of  the  total  county  population  they  furnished  10.2  per 
cent  of  all  marriages;  and  in  1903  they  furnished  15.7  per  cent, 
of  all  marriages,  while  forming  9  per  cent,  of  the  population. 

When  we  compare  the  number  of  marriages  by  five  year 
periods  with  the  births  for  five-year  periods,  we  find  that  the 
average  has  been  two  births  to  each  marriage,  with  a  very  slight 
increase  for  the  last  ten  years.  Since  1898  the  number  of  births 
per  marriage  is  slightly  greater  for  the  whites  than  for  the 
colored. 

The  monthly  record  of  marriages  for  17  years  shows  that 
June  holds  first  rank  but  three  times,  while  December  leads  ten 
times.  June  holds  first  or  second  rank  only  seven  times,  while 
December  is  first  or  second  for  15  years  out  of  the  17.  The 
months  with  fewest  marriages  are  July,  August  and  January. 
Forty  per  cent,  of  all  marriages  occurred  in  December,  October. 
November  and  September.  This  does  not  correlate  closely  with 
the  birth  record  by  months,  except  in  the  case  of  September,  which 
ranks  second  in  number  of  births. 

The  following  comparisons  for  the  city  alone  are  based 
on  the  census  of  1900 :  Nearly  20,600  persons,  or  53.8  per  cent., 
were  single;  39.5  per  cent,  were  married,  an  increase  of  21.2 
per  cent,  over  1890;  6  per  cent,  were  widowed,  and  the  re- 


74  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

mainder  were  divorced  or  unknown.  Evidently  the  number  of 
divorced  is  greatly  underestimated.  If  we  take  into  consideration 
only  the  population  over  15  years  of  age,  we  find  that  54.8  per 
cent,  are  married ;  8.4  per  cent,  widowed  and  less  than  one  per 
cent,  divorced.  Of  the  male  population,  56.7  per  cent,  are  single, 
and  the  single  males  number  53.3  per  cent,  of  all  single  persons. 
The  single  females  number  50.8  per  cent,  of  all  females.  The 
single  males  have  increased  19  per  cent,  and  the  single  females  14.6 
per  cent,  since  1890;  the  relative  proportion  of  single  males  has 
increased  somewhat  more  than  one  per  cent,  since  1890.  The 
married  males  number  39.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  male  population, 
and  the  married  females  39.8  per  cent,  of  all  females.  The  num- 
ber of  widowed  is  over  twice  as  great  among  the  females  as 
among  the  males.  About  3.5  per  cent,  of  all  males  are  counted 
as  widowed,  while  the  females  had  8.7  per  cent,  widowed.  If  we 
consider  only  those  males  and  females  over  15  years  of  age,  we 
find  that  54.8  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  55.4  per  cent,  of  the 
females  are  married;  and  4.8  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  12.2  per 
cent,  of  the  females  are  widowed. 

Divorce. — We  have  compiled  a  list  of  the  divorces  pending 
and  granted  annually  for  a  period  of  thirty  years ;  and  our  ob- 
servations are  based  on  these  data.  The  number  of  suits  for 
divorce  tried  in  the  courts  has  increased  at  a  remarkable  rate. 
In  1875  the  number  pending  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  was 
28,  and  22  were  brought  during  the  year,  making  a  total  of  50 
before  the  court  in  that  year.  The  number  brought  annually 
shows  a  continual  increase.  Assuming  the  population  to  be 
37,000  in  1875,  the  population  of  the  county  has  then  increased 
to  62,800,  or  about  68  per  cent. ;  the  number  of  suits  for  divorce 
brought  into  court  has  increased  from  22  to  221,  or  an  increase 
of  over  900  per  cent.  The  greatness  of  this  increase  may  be 
realized  better  by  a  comparison  of  marriages  and  divorces  by 
five-year  periods  since  1875. 

The  number  of  divorces  to  marriages  is  as  follows :  1875  to 
1879,  inclusive,  I  to  every  12  marriages;  1880  to  1884,  i  to  every 
12  marriages ;  1885  to  l889>  l  to  every  9 ;  1890  to  1894,  I  to  every 
7;  1895  to  1899,  i  to  every  6;  1900  to  1903,  inclusive,  I  to  every 
5  marriages.  As  has  been  said  before,  the  relative  number  of 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO. 


75 


marriages  has  not  decreased,  and  this  fact  makes  the  great  in- 
crease of  divorces  all  the  more  noticeable.  Of  course,  not  all 
of  the  divorces  asked  for  were  granted ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand, 
do  the  divorces  include  desertions  and  separations  that  never 
come  under  the  cognizance  of  the  court.  From  1875  to  1879 
all  but  two  of  the  divorces  asked  were  granted;  from  1880 
to  1884,  63  per  cent.;  from  1885  to  I&&9,  73  per  cent.;  and  since 
1900,  74  per  cent,  of  all  divorces  asked  for  have  been  granted. 

The  chief  reasons  alleged  by  those  praying  for  divorce  are 
three :  Adultery,  absence  or  neglect,  and  cruelty.  Of  course,  in 
many  cases  the  alleged  causes  are  not  the  real  ones.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  cases  are  brought  on  the  alleged  cause  of  de- 
sertion and  neglect,  and  the  proportion  is  an  increasing  one;  the 
fiext  cause  is  cruelty.  The  number  brought  on  account  of  adul- 
tery decreased  constantly  from  1880  to  1890;  since  that  time  the 
number  has  increased,  although  the  number  since  1900  is  not  so 
great  as  in  the  period  1879-1884.  Certainly  the  number  under 
the  cause  of  desertion  and  neglect  contains  many  which  should 
be  under  the  head  of  adultery. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  what  proportion  of  those  seek- 
ing divorce  is  urban,  and  what  proportion  rural.  It  would  be  in- 
teresting to  know  the  relation  of  divorce  to  the  decreasing  birth 
rate,  and  also  the  age  of  those  seeking  divorce ;  but  it  is  impossible 
to  determine  these  things  from  data  at  hand. 


TABLE  IX. 
Number  of  Marriages  and  Divorces  by  Five-Year  Periods  from  1875. 


)   1 

1875- 

1880- 

1885- 

1890- 

1895-  |1900- 

1879 

1884 

1889 

1894 

1899 

1903 

Marriages    

1,709 

2,341 

|  2,216 

2,272 

2,096 

2,099 

Divorces  asked  

137 

200 

256 

315 

360 

428 

Divorces  granted  

135 

126 

188 

224 

263 

317 

76  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

(b)   DWELLINGS 

In  1900  there  was  one  dwelling1  to  every  4.6  persons  in 
Clark  County ;  this  is  a  slight  decrease  since  1890,  but  the  number 
of  dwellings  has  increased  15  per  cent.  The  number  to  a  dwell- 
ing has  decreased  1.6  since  1850;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
number  of  dwellings  has  increased  more  than  250  per  cent,  since 
that  time. 

In  1900,  there  were  13,529  families  in  the  county  or  about 
900  more  than  the  number  of  dwellings.  The  number  of  families 
increased  17  per  cent,  over  1890.  The  average  of  persons  to  a 
family  in  1900  was  4.3 ;  in  1890,  4.5,  and  in  1850  5.8.  Sixty- 
three  per  cent,  of  the  dwellings  of  the  county  are  in  the  city. 
The  number  in  the  city  increased  19  per  cent,  over  1890,  and  the 
number  in  the  rural  districts  increased  but  2  per  cent.  In  the  city 
the  average  number  of  persons  to  a  dwelling  in  1900  was  4.8,  a 
slight  increase  over  1890,  but  still  not  so  large  as  in  1880,  while  in 
the  rural  population  the  average  was  4.4,  a  slight  decrease  from 
1890. 

In  1900,  65  per  cent,  of  the  county  families  were  urban. 
The  number  in  the  city  increased  22  per  cent,  and  the  number  in 
the  rural  districts  increased  7  per  cent,  over  1890.  In  the  city 
the  average  number  to  a  family  was  4.4,  and  in  the  rural  districts 
4.3,  a  slight  decrease  in  each  from  1890.  The  city  contains  64.6 
per  cent,  of  the  private  families  of  the  county,  which  comprise  96 
per  cent,  of  the  urban  population,  with  an  average  size  of  4.2  per 
family.  In  the  rural  population,  practically  all  of  the  families 
are  private,  and  the  average  is  4.3  persons  to  a  family. 

When  we  consider  the  total  number  of  persons  to  a  dwelling 
in  the  city,  we  find  that  the  mode  is  three  persons.  Eighteen  and 
five-tenths  per  cent,  of  all  the  dwellings  are  occupied  by  three 
persons  each ;  15.7  per  cent,  are  occupied  by  four  persons  per 
dwelling;  14.8  per  cent,  by  five  persons;  n  per  cent,  by  six 
persons ;  and  small  percentages  by  six  persons  or  more. 

In  the  city,  families  of  from  one  to  two  persons  have  increased 
47  per  cent,  over  1890,  and  contain  9.3  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
city  population.  This  class  forms  23  per  cent,  of  all  urban 
families. 


1  We  use  the  term  dwellings  a«  used  in  the  last  Federal  census. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  77 

The  families  of  three  persons  form  20  per  cent,  of  all  fam- 
ilies ;  an  increase  of  23  per  cent,  over  1890.  This  class  contains 
14  per  cent,  of  the  city's  population.  The  families  of  four  per- 
sons number  18  per  cent,  of  all  families  and  have  increased  20 
per  cent,  over  1890.  This  group  contains  16.6  per  cent,  of  the 
city's  population.  The  five-member  family  has  increased  but  8 
per  cent,  over  1890,  and  contains  16  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
The  six-member  family  contains  13.2  per  cent,  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation; the  seven-member  family,  10.2  per  cent.;  and  the  eight- 
member  family,  7  per  cent. 

(c)    POPULATION  AND  OCCUPATION  GROUPS 

The  following  is  based  on  the  census  of  1900:  The  popu- 
lation over  10  years  of  age  formed  82  per  cent,  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation; of  this  number  the  males  formed  50.3  per  cent,  and  the 
females  49.7  per  cent.  The  actual  labor  force  of  the  city  is  made 
up  of  12,686  men  and  2,809  women,  or  just  about  one-half  of  the 
population  over  10  years  of  age  and  40.5  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population.  The  men  in  gainful  occupations  number  over  80 
per  cent,  of  all  males  over  10  years  of  age,  and  about  66  per  cent, 
of  all  urban  males ;  the  women  so  engaged  are  18  per  cent,  of  all 
females  over  10  years  of  age,  and  about  one-seventh  of  all  the 
urban  females. 

The  largest  occupation  group  is  that  of  manufacturing  and 
mechanical  pursuits,  which  contains  nearly  47  per  cent,  of  the 
total  actual  labor  force,  and  which  represents  more  than  one- 
fifth  of  the  entire  city  population.  Nine-tenths  of  all  workers 
in  this  group  are  men;  more  than  one-half  of  the  men,  and  not 
quite  one-fourth  of  the  women,  in  all  occupations  are  in  this 
group.  Of  the  6,600  men  in  this  occupation  group,  more  than 
one-fourth  are  iron  and  steel  workers,  and  more  than  one- 
sixth  are  machinists ;  only  14  women  are  in  this  class.  One  man 
in  every  six  of  all  the  males  over  10  years  old  is  an  iron  and  steel 
worker  or  machinist. 

The  trade  and  transportation  group  is  the  next  in  size.  It 
contains  about  3,100  men  and  500  women,  or  about  one-fourth 
of  the  actual  labor  force  of  the  city.  About  one-fourth  of  all 
male  laborers  and  about  the  same  proportion  of  females  are  in 


78  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

this  group.  The  largest  sub-group  is  that  of  salesmen,  who  are 
one-sixth  of  all  in  the  class.  Another  sixth  is  made  up  of  the 
merchant  class. 

The  next  group,  and  but  little  smaller  than  the  last,  is  that  of 
domestic  and  personal  service.  About  23  per  cent,  of  all  workers 
are  in  this  group;  the  men  are  63  per  cent,  and  the  women  37 
per  cent,  of  the  number.  The  men  comprise  18  per  cent,  of  all 
male  workers,  and  the  women  nearly  one-half  of  all  females  in 
gainful  occupations.  Four-fifths  of  the  men  in  this  group  are 
laborers  not  especially  classified,  and  5  per  cent,  are  saloon-keepers. 
The  greater  number  of  the  women  (66  per  cent.)  are  servants. 

The  next  class  is  that  of  professional  service,  comprising  5.6 
per  cent,  of  all  workers;  and  is  made  up  of  4.5  per  cent,  of  all 
male  workers  and  9.4  per  cent,  of  all  the  women  in  gainful  occu- 
pations. The  men  are  69  per  cent,  of  this  class. 

The  smallest  class  is  that  of  agricultural  pursuits,  compris- 
ing 1.5  per  cent,  of  all  in  gainful  occupations. 

(d)   MALES  OF  MILITIA  AGE 

In  the  whole  county  in  1900,  22  per  cent,  of  the  population 
were  of  milita  age,  an  increase  of  15.5  per  cent,  over  1890.  The 
city  contains  68.1  per  cent,  of  this  number,  an  increase  of  over 
23  per  cent,  from  1890.  This  element  was  23.3  per  cent,  of  the 
city  population;  80.6  per  cent,  of  these  were  native  whites,  and 
11.3  per  cent,  were  colored.  Nearly  24  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
colored  element  were  of  militia  age ;  an  increase  of  almost  one- 
fourth  over  1890.  In  the  same  time  the  native  whites  increased 
30.2  per  cent,  and  the  foreign  whites  decreased  one-fourth.  In 
the  rural  districts  by  far  the  greater  number  (over  93  per  cent.) 
were  native  whites,  a  gain  of  3  per  cent,  over  1890;  while  the  col- 
ored element,  fewer  than  200  in  number,  made  up  only  one-sixth 
of  all  the  negroes  of  this  class  in  the  county. 

(e)   VOTING  POPULATION 

The  voting  population  of  Clark  County  in  1900  comprised 
30  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  and  60.5  per  cent,  of  the 
voters  were  urban.  In  the  city  30.8  per  cent,  of  the  population  and 
in  the  rural  districts  29.1  per  cent,  are  voters.  In  the  city  88.2  per 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  79 

cent.,  and  in  the  country  97  per  cent,  of  voters,  are  white,  an  in- 
crease over  1890  of  30  per  cent,  and  7  per  cent,  respectively.  The 
proportion  of  negroes  is  slightly  greater  in  the  voting  than  in  the 
total  population.  The  colored  voters  have  increased  31.4  per 
cent,  in  the  city  and  have  decreased  more  than  n  per  cent,  in 
the  rural  districts.  The  foreign  born  electors  are  only  14  per  cent, 
of  all  voters,  and  have  decreased  greatly  since  1890. 

Section  2.    Springfield 

Springfield  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1850 ;  and  the  char- 
ter of  government  became  effective  in  1851,  and  was  the  funda- 
mental law  of  the  municipality  for  forty  years.  During  these 
years  the  administrative  functions  of  the  city  government  were 
not  well  divided  among  the  executive,  legislative  and  judicial  de- 
partments. The  mayor  was  not  only  an  executive,  but  also  a 
judicial  officer ;  his  sole  assistant  was  the  city  marshal,  who  had 
the  powers  of  town  constable.  During  this  period  the  city  council 
was  not  exclusively  legislative,  but  had  also  many  executive 
powers. 

In  1891,  Springfield  was  one  of  the  cities  classified  and  r<>- 
chartered  by  the  state  legislature.  The  fundamental  idea  was  to 
establish  a  bi-partisan  form  of  government,  so  that  there  might 
be  harmony  between  the  two  great  political  parties.  The  plan 
was  never  realized  in  any  particular;  the  division  of  city  boards 
equally  between  the  parties  resulted  in  political  quarrels,  feuds, 
deals,  and  wire-pulling — all  unworthy  of  such  bodies.  After 
ten  years'  trial,  the  good  men  of  both  parties  were  thoroughly 
disgusted  with  the  practical  working  of  the  plan  and  were  eager 
for  a  change. 

The  present  plan  is  the  same  in  all  Ohio  cities  having  over 
5,000  inhabitants.  The  charter,  which  went  into  effect  in  1903. 
provides  for  a  more  complete  severing  of  legislative  and  execu- 
tive functions  than  existed  under  the  old  charter.  The  legisla- 
tive department  consists  of  a  single  body,  the  council,  composed 
at  present  of  nine  members ;  six  of  them  chosen  by  wards  and 
three  by  the  city  at  large.  The  president  of  this  council  is 
chosen  in  addition  to  these  by  popular  vote,  and  has  no  vote 
except  in  case  of  tie.  This  method  of  election  of  the  president 


80  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

of  the  council  does  away  with  the  quarrels  and  wire-pulling  at- 
tendant upon  the  former  method  of  election  by  the  council  itself. 
The  council  has  general  legislative  authority  in  framing  ordi- 
nances and  rules  subordinate  to  the  city  charter;  it  has,  further, 
the  general  tax  levying  power,  limited,  however,  to  a  levy  of  ten 
mills — except  by  special  consent  of  the  corporate  body,  and  by 
the  tax  commission,  which  may  criticise  or  revise  it ;  but  the  veto 
of  this  commission  is  not  final,  since  the  council  may  still  pass 
the  levy  over  the  veto  by  a  three-fourths  majority  of  all  the  mem- 
bers. The  councilmen  hold  office  for  two  years. 

The  chief  executive  is  the  mayor,  elected  for  two  years. 
Under  the  old  charter  he  was  a  mere  figurehead ;  now  he  has  far 
more  power.  Vacancies  in  this  office  are  filled  by  the  president 
of  the  council  until  the  next  regular  election.  The  mayor  may 
be  removed  for  cause  by  the  governor.  The  mayor  appoints  the 
board  of  public  safety,  the  park  board,  hospital  and  health 
boards,  and  the  minor  administrative  officers ;  for  the  first  time 
he  has  a  veto  power  over  the  acts  of  the  council.  The  other  chief 
executive  officials  are  the  treasurer,  auditor,  and  board  of  pub- 
lic service;  these  officers  are  elective.  The  board  of  public 
service  has  purely  administrative  duties;  having  the  care  of  all 
public  buildings  and  highways ;  it  is  limited  in  making  contracts 
to  the  sum  of  $500,  except  when  authorized  by  the  council.  The 
board  of  public  safety  is  appointed  for  four  years,  and  has  the 
regulation  and  supervision  of  the  police  and  fire  departments.  The 
four-year  term  of  service  is  good  and  might  well  be  applied  to  all 
other  officers  in  the  city.  All  appointees  of  this  board  are  under 
the  merit  system — a  new  and  admirable  part  of  the  present  plan 
of  government.  All  members  are  subject  to  removal  by  the 
mayor,  with  the  approval  of  the  board.  The  mayor  may  remove 
the  board  members  by  preferring  charges  against  them  before 
the  council. 

The  board  of  review  is  appointive  and  has  power  to  equalize 
the  valuations  of  all  real  property  in  the  city.  The  board  may 
place  a  value  on  any  property  not  already  listed  for  taxation,  or 
change  the  valuation  of  property  already  listed.  As  in  all  other 
Ohio  cities,  there  is  also  a  decennial  board  of  equalization,  which 
appraises  all  property  anew  for  the  ensuing  decade.  The  board  of 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO.  81 

elections  also  is  appointive ;  it  has  charge  of  all  matters  pertaining 
to  registration  and  elections  in  the  city. 

The  board  of  education  is  the  only  body  not  yet  subject 
to  reform  by  the  municipal  code;  it  is  hoped,  however,  that  the 
present  legislature  (1904)  will  reform  the  method  of  election  of 
school  boards,  and  the  general  system  of  school  administration. 
The  present  board  consists  of  twelve  members,  two  from  each 
ward,  and  elected  for  two  years.  The  board  appoints  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  and  other  officers  and  teachers  in 
the  schools.  During  the  past  year  there  has  been  agitation  in 
Springfield,  as  in  other  Ohio  cities,  for  the  adoption  of  what  is 
known  as  the  "Toledo  Plan,"  which  provides  for  a  smaller  num- 
ber of  members,  and  makes  at  least  one  of  them  a  salaried  officer, 
requiring  him  to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  business  manage- 
ment of  the  schools,  leaving  the  other  school  administration  to 
the  superintendent  of  instruction.  Further  suggestions  are :  The 
election  of  members  by  the  city  at  large,  instead  of  by  wards ;  the 
nomination  of  members,  not  by  political  parties,  but  through  pe- 
titions of  at  least  two  hundred  citizens. 

The  judicial  department  of  the  city  consists  of  a  police 
court,  comprising  a  judge,  clerk,  and  prosecutor,  all  elected 
for  two  years.  Experience  in  Springfield  proves  that  the  term  of 
office  is  not  sufficiently  long  to  make  them  independent  of  political 
influences.  Only  petty  criminal  cases  are  tried  here.  All  civil 
cases  are  tried  in  the  justice  of  the  peace  or  common  pleas  courts. 

In  general  criticism  of  the  political  organization  of  the  city, 
we  may  say :  First,  that  the  executive  department  is  much 
stronger  than  ever  before,  yet  the  mayor  should  be  given  more  in- 
dependent power  in  the  removal  of  his  appointees ;  again,  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  board  of  public  service  should  not  be  ap- 
pointive, as  the  board  of  safety  is.  Again,  the  executive 
boards  have  taken  upon  themselves  to  decide  what  laws  or  ordi- 
nances should  be  enforced,  forgetting  that  they  have  no  right  to 
exercise  individual  judgment  as  to  what  laws  to  enforce,  and  that 
their  plain  duty  is  to  enforce  the  decrees  of  the  people.  Last,  and 
most  serious,  is  the  criticism  that  politics  so  largely  control  nearly 
every  department  of  the  city  government.  The  legislature  would 
have  been  wiser  if  it  had  adopted  the  plan  proposed  by  the 


82  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

"Special  Committee  of  1900,"  which  provided  that  "fitness  should 
be.  the  only  test  of  the  appointment,  and  fidelity  and  efficiency  the 
only  tenure  of  office."  They  suggested  a  council  of  seven,  four 
from  councilmanic  districts,  and  three  from  the  city  at  large. 

In  the  executive  department,  only  the  mayor,  clerk,  and 
treasurer  were  to  be  elective,  and  nominations  were  not  to  be 
made  by  party  primaries,  but  by  petitions  of  some  definite  number 
of  voters. 

The  general  opinion  of  advanced  thinkers  in  Ohio  today 
seems  to  be  in  favor  of  the  formation  of  an  executive  department 
on  the  Federal  plan.  Other  interesting  features  of  the  proposed 
code  are  the  propositions  that  all  cities  shall  have  the  right  to  own 
all  telephones,  gas,  and  electric  light  plants;  that  cities  of  over 
50,000  shall  be  empowered  to  own  their  street-car  systems,  and 
that  no  franchises  shall  be  granted  except  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people. 

Section  3.    Private  Associations 

(a)    CULTURAL 

In  the  old  days  there  seem  to  have  been  more  associations 
proportionately  to  the  population  than  at  present.  Even  as  late 
as  twenty  years  ago,  scarcely  a  rural  community  failed  to  have  a 
large  and  flourishing  literary  society,  debating  club,  or  singing 
school.  Today  the  old-fashioned  spelling  school  or  debating  so- 
ciety is  a  curiosity.  The  place  of  these  old  clubs  in  the  city  and  in 
many  rural  communities  has  been  taken  by  almost  innumerable 
fraternal  organizations  among  the  men  and  by  women's  clubs 
among  the  other  sex. 

There  were  98  fraternal  bodies  in  Springfield  in  1900,  with  a 
total  membership  of  11,311.  There  are  very  few  men  in  the  city 
who  do  not  belong  to  at  least  one  of  these  organizations,  and  many 
belong  to  more  than  one.  It  is  not  necessary  to  speak  of  the 
individual  fraternities.  The  Odd  Fellows  are  strongest,  with 
about  one-fifth  of  the  total  fraternal  membership.  The  Knights 
of  Pythias  and  the  Masons  are  second  and  third  respectively.  Nine 
of  the  Masonic  lodges  are  colored,  with  430  members;  five 
Knights  of  Pythias  lodges  are  colored,  with  325  members.  In 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  83 

all,  about  1,000  colored  persons  belong  to  the  fraternal  soci- 
eties. Three  of  the  fraternal  orders' have  state  homes  in  Spring- 
field— the  Masons,  Odd  Fellows,  and  Pythians.  The  enthu- 
siasm f  for  fraternal  associations  has  lately  spread  over  the  coun- 
ty ;  especially  is  this  true  of  the  Knights  of  Pythias  and  the  Junior 
Order  of  American  Mechanics.  Nearly  every  little,  hamlet  now 
has  one  of  these  organizations. 

There  are  many  club  organizations  among  the  women  of 
Springfield.  These  clubs  are  of  all  sorts  and  their  range  of  study 
seems  unlimited.  The  first  woman's  club  was  formed  about 
twenty-five  years  ago,  as  a  branch  of  the  Chautauqua  move- 
ment. It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  women's  clubs 
of  today — their  name  is  legion.  The  desire  for  social  and  liter- 
ary clubs  is  confined  to  no  one  sect  or  class,  but  is  common  to  all 
classes.  During  the  past  two  or  three  years,  four  or  five  clubs 
have  been  formed  among  the  colored  women  of  the  city.  An  in- 
quiry at  the  public  library  brings  out  the  fact  that  these  study 
clubs  are  creating  a  larger  demand  than  formerfy  for  works 
other  than  fiction. 

There  seems  to  be  little  of  such  club  life  in  the  rural  com- 
munities. Indeed,  it  appears  that  during  the  past  few  years  there 
has  been  a  great  lack  of  that  old  social  life  which  formerly  char- 
acterized the  rural  population.  Nothing,  as  yet,  has  taken  the 
place  of  the  old-time  quilting  and  sewing  bees.  Probably  the 
coming  of  the  interurban  trolley  and  the  telephone  will  serve  to 
bring  about  a  renewal  and  strengthening  of  social  life. 

Religious  Associations. — The  first  religious  organization  in 
the  county  was  that  of  the  Methodists,  just  a  century  ago.  They 
erected  their  first  building  in  1814.  A  church  building  was 
erected  before  this,  however,  by  the  "New  Lights,"  in  1810,  but 
the  organization  lasted  only  fifteen  years.  The  next  organization 
went  under  the  name  of  "Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church,"  but  it  is  now  known  as  the  United  Presbyterian.  An- 
other old  organization  is  the  regular  Presbyterian,  which  was 
formed  in  1819.  The  Federal  census  of  1850  gives  the  number 
of  churches  as  63,  with  a  seating  capacity  of  23,000.  Unfortu- 
nately the  census  did  not  include  the  number  of  communicants. 
These  societies  represented  12  different  sects,  the  Methodists  lead- 


84  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

ing,  and  the  Presbyterians  and  Baptists  following.  By  1890, 
the  number  of  societies  had  increased  to  98,  with  a  seating  ca- 
pacity of  36,000,  an  increase  of  58  per  cent,  over  1850.  The 
value  of  all  church  property  was  more  than  $792,000.  If  the  cen- 
sus figures  for  1850  are  correct,  they  show  that  the  churches  then 
had  a  seating  capacity  for  500  more  than  the  total  population ; 
while  in  1890  there  were  seatings  for  only  about  70  per  cent,  of 
the  population.  The  census  of  1890  gives  the  total  number  of 
communicants  in  the  county  as  19,576,  an  average  of  about  200  to 
each  society;  and  comprising  about  37  per  cent,  of  the  total  pop- 
ulation. 

It  has  been  difficult  to  get  the  church  enumeration  of  the 
present  day;  in  some  cases  estimates  only  were  given  by  pastors 
or  clerks.  The  number  of  societies  is  now  ( 1904)  100,  with 
22,000  communicants,  a  gain  of  about  12.5  per  cent,  in  13  years. 
This  includes  an  estimate  of  4,000  adherents  of  the  Catholic 
churches.  About  35  per  cent,  of  the  total  county  population  are 
church  members.  At  present  there  are  45  societies  in  the  city, 
and  55  in  the  rural  districts.  The  communicants  in  the  city  num- 
ber 16.000  in  round  numbers  and  in  the  rural  districts  6,000. 
The  increase  in  the  rural  districts  has  been  slightly  greater,  pro- 
portionately, than  in  the  city.  Many  of  the  churches  in  the  little 
villages  and  hamlets,  however,  are  barely  holding  their  own.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  is  strongest  in  the  rural  districts,  compris- 
ing about  one-third  of  the  entire  rural  church  population ;  but  it 
has  scarcely  done  more  than  hold  its  own  in  recent  years.  The 
Lutherans,  Presbyterians  and  Baptists  are  next  in  order  of 
strength,  making  one-fifth  of  the.  rural  population.  The  Reformed 
Church,  and  the  Christian,  number  about  600  each,  and  the  Meth- 
odist Protestant,  300.  The  rural  Catholics  number  about  300. 
There  is  one  rural  African  Methodist  church  with  175  members. 

This  county  has  been  a  meeting  place  for  many  sects  that 
are  peculiar  on  account  of  dress  or  particular  religious  ob- 
servances. In  the  western  portion  of  the  county  between  Spring- 
fild  and  New  Carlisle  are.  many  Dunkards,  who  came  from  Penn- 
sylvania about  fifty  years  ago;  they  number  about  300,  and  are 
among  the  most  thrifty  and  well-to-do  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
county.  They  are  now  divided  into  two  bodies.  In  the  southeast- 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  85 

ern  corner  of  the  county  there  has  been  a  settlement  of  Friends 
for  sixty  years  or  mof e ;  their  number  has  not  grown  during  the 
past  few  years.  There  are  now  about  200  communicants  in  their 
two  churches ;  they  are  divided  about  equally  into  Orthodox  and 
Hicksite  Friends. 

The  southwestern  corner  of  the  county,  in  Mad  River  and 
Bethel  townships,  is  largely  made  up  of  Mennonites  and  River 
Brethren,  all  of  whom  are  well-to-do  and  thrifty  farmers.  The 
Mennonites.  about  200  in  all,  are  divided  into  three  groups. 
The  largest  group,  140  persons,  is  that  of  the  Reformed  Men- 
nonites; the  other  two  groups,  about  equal  in  numbers,  are  the 
"Brethren  in  Christ"  and  "Mennonites  Proper."  There  are  only 
about  60  River  Brethren  all  told.  The  Seventh  Day  Baptists 
have  a  church  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  county.  There  is 
also  a  community  of  Saints  north  and  northwest  of  Springfield. 

In  the  city  the  total  number  of  communicants  comprises  about 
38  per  cent,  of  the  urban  population.  The  first  great  division  of 
the  urban  religious  population  is  between  Protestant  and  Catholic. 
Until  1830,  there  was  not  a  Catholic  in  the  city,  but  ten  years 
later  there  were  many  Catholic  families  and  a  church  organization 
was  formed.  There  are  now  three  large  Catholic  societies — one 
Ge.rman  and  two  Irish.  There  is  evidently  a  discrepancy  in  the 
number  of  Catholics  as  given  in  the  Eleventh  Census,  for  a  recent 
local  census  returned  800  fewer  than  the  number  given  in  1890. 
It  is  a  conservative  judgment  to  estimate  the  number  of  Catholics 
in  the  city  as  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  and 
about  one-fourth  of  the  church  population.  The  Irish  Cath- 
olics are  three  times  as  numerous  as  the  German  Catholics.  Re- 
cent returns  show  250  German  Catholic  families  and  850  Irish 
Catholic  families  in  the  churches. 

The  German  Protestants  are  in  two  churches,  having  a  mem- 
bership of  about  i, 800;  these  churches  are  strong  and  growing. 
The  Lutherans,  among  the  Protestant  bodies,  have,  the  greatest 
number  of  churches,  but  the  Methodists  have  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  communicants.  Nearly  77  per  cent,  of  all  church  mem- 
bers are  Protestant,  and  of  these  the  German  Lutherans  make  up 
1 1. 2  per  cent.,  thus  leaving  about  66  per  cent,  for  the  English 
Protestants.  The  Methodists,  with  five  bodies,  comprise  14.7 


86  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

per  cent,  of  the  total  religious  population,  and  the  English  Luth- 
erans 13  per  cent.  These  four  bodies  mentioned  above  make  up 
then  all  but  38  per  cent,  of  the  church  population.  If  the  figures 
for  1890  are  correct,  the  Methodists  have  done  little  more  than 
hold  their  own  since  that  time.  The  English  Lutherans  now  have 
seven  churches,  and  have  increased  40  per  cent,  over  1890.  The 
Lutherans  of  all  kinds  number  one- fourth  of  the  church  population 
and  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  city  population.  The  predominance 
of  the  Lutheran  element  may  be  accounted  for  when  we  remember 
that  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  have  furnished  so  large  a  pro- 
portion of  the  older  city  population. 

The  Presbyterians  are  next  in  strength,  with  1,500  members, 
or  about  10  per  cent,  of  all  church  members;  they  are  divided 
into  the  regular  Presbyterians,  with  four  churches  and  1,250  mem- 
bers, and  the  United  Presbyterians,  with  one  church  and  250  mem- 
bers. The  first  body  has  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  latter, 
the  increase  being  about  30  per  cent,  over  1890.  Next  in  size 
are  the  Baptist,  Congregational,  and  Protestant  Episcopal  de- 
nominations, each  with  two  churches,  and  about  500  members, 
and  each  growing  very  slowly.  The  other  (white)  churches  are 
scattered  among  various  denominations,  e.  g.,  the  United  Breth- 
ren, one  church,  400  members ;  the  Christians,  200  members ;  and 
the  Universalists  with  fewer  than  100  members.  The  Jews  have 
a  strong  organization  of  about  200  members  and  are  among  the 
most  liberal  of  all  the  sects.  While  nothing  definite  can  be 
learned  as  to  the  number  of  Christian  Scientists,  yet  the  number 
cannot  be  far  from  300,  and  is  growing.  The  Salvation  Army 
has  a  strong  organization  in  the  city,  and  has  gained  the  entire 
respect  and  financial  co-operation  of  the  community. 

The  5,000  colored  persons  in  the  city  are  represented  by  1,200 
communicants.  They  comprise  about  8  per  cent,  of  the  total 
church  membership.  The  Methodists  comprise  56  per  cent.,  and 
the  Baptists  44  per  cent,  of  this  element.  The  Baptists  have  two 
churches  and  the  Methodists  three.  If  the  returns  are  correct, 
the  colored  church  membership  has  increased  greatly  since  1890. 
The  Methodists  have  almost  doubled  their  numbers  and  the  Bap- 
tists have  increased  by  a  large  percentage.  The  two  Baptist 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  87 

churches  are  of  brick,  and  are  large  and  commodious ;  their  prop- 
erty is  valued  at  $39,000. 

The  above  named  are  the  regular  organizations.  As  auxil- 
iary to  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Christian  Endeavor  societies, 
Epworth  Leagues,  and  the  Baptist  Young  People's  Unions,  each 
of  which  is  organically  connected  with  some  church.  Another 
power  for  good  in  the  city  is  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion. The  first  attempt  to  form  an  association  was  in  1854,  10  years 
after  the  first  attempt  of  George  Williams  in  England.  An  old 
citizen  says  that  the  Civil  War  united  such  associations  into  the 
Christian  Commission,  and  thus  terminated  the  career  of  this  one 
in  Springfield.  A  reorganization  was  effected  in  1868.  The 
chief  function  of  this  association  was  to  secure  public  meetings 
on  Sunday  and  to  hold  services  at  the  jail  and  station  house. 
This  association  also  made  a  collection  of  some  2,000  volumes, 
to  be  used  in  lieu  of  a  public  library,  which,  in  1872,  became  the 
nucleus  of  the  present  library.  The  association  relinquished 
active  work  in  1872.  Another  organization  was  formed  in  1879, 
but  failed  of  its  purpose.  The  last  and  successful  attempt  to 
form  an  association  was  made  in  1887;  it  grew  rapidly  and  in 
1892  numbered  more  than  1,000  men.  A  large  association 
building  was  erected  in  1901  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $100,000.  This 
association  is  a  pioneer  in  the  work  of  teaching  mechanical  draw- 
ing and  manual  training  in  its  night  schools.  A  few  years  ago 
an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  an  association  among  the  col- 
ored men,  but  as  yet  it  has  made  little  progress. 

The  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  may  be  classed 
among  the  religious  associations,  although  a  part  of  its  work  can- 
not be  described  as  strictly  religious  in  character.  It  is  an  out- 
growth of  an  old  association  known  as  the  "Deaconess  Home." 
The  work  has  been  to  care  for  women  and  children ;  one  notable 
feature  is  the  establishment  of  a  relief  home  for  children  whose 
mothers  must  work  away  from  home,  and  also  for  homeless 
children. 

(b)   ECONOMIC  ASSOCIATIONS 

Private  economic  associations  are  chiefly  in  manufacturing 
pursuits,  although  there  are  1,200  merchants  and  agents  in  the  city. 


88  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

Associations  in  manufacturing  began  with  the  beginning  of  the 
city's  history.  There  are  now  13  companies  engaged  in  making 
machinery  and  material  and  supplies  for  other  factories;  7  com- 
panies make  gas  and  steam  engines;  21  make  iron  and  steel  prod- 
ucts, including  furnaces,  stoves,  bridges,  and  electric  supplies ; 
14  houses  manufacture  publishing  supplies;  9  firms  are  florists; 
4  make  medicines  and  chemicals,  and  51  are  engaged  in  miscel- 
laneous manufactures.  There  are  five  national  banking  associa- 
tions, with  over  $5,000,000  resources;  there  are  also  two  strong 
building  and  loan  associations. 

Labor  Unions. — Before  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  there  were 
no  labor  unions  in  Clark  County  for  the  reason  that  the  modern 
manufacturing  system  had  scarcely  begun.  The  first  union  to  be 
formed  was  that  of  the  iron  molders,  in  1864,  with  22  charter 
members,  among  whom  were  many  of  the  now  well-known  and 
respected  citizens,  and  many  who  hold  prominent  positions 
in  the  city.  The  charter  was  returned  after  a  few  years,  but  re- 
gained in  1878.  This  union  pays  sick  and  out-of-work  benefits. 
In  common  with  the  other  members  of  the  International  Molders, 
it  has  an  agreement  with  various  employers'  associations,  by  which 
all  disputes  must  be  heard  by  a  joint  committee  representing  each 
organization — a  plan  that  has  been  successful  in  Springfield. 

The  second  labor  organization  formed  in  the  city  was  the 
Typographical  Union.  Its  list  of  charter  members  includes  many 
who  are  now  publishers  and  employers.  The  first  event  of  any 
prominence  connected  with  its  history  was  in  1886,  when  a  strike 
was  made  for  higher  wages ;  the  decision  of  the  matter  was  left 
to  an  arbitration  committee,  and  was  satisfactorily  adjusted.  The 
Introduction  of  type-setting  and  type-casting  machinery  has  not 
proved  a  detriment  to  the  workmen  of  Springfield.  One  of  their 
number  said:  "It  has  benefited  us,  because  it  has  produced  a 
stimulus  to  the  printing  business."  There  has  never  been  a  serious 
strike  in  connection  with  this  union. 

Aside  from  these  two  unions  no  others  existed  until  1883, 
when  the  locomotive  engineers  established  a  branch  here.  The 
new  impetus  to  the  organization  of  labor  came  between  1883 
and  1886  in  the  Knights  of  Labor  movement.  The  first  was  the 
Mad  River  Assembly,  which  was  the  sole.  Knights'  organization 
until  1885-6,  when  the  Tailors'  Assembly  was  formed.  It  was 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  89 

followed  by  the  Champion  City,  Lagonda,  Germania,  Phoenix, 
Excelsior  and  others ;  in  all  there  where  eleven  assemblies.  In 
October,  1886,  a  district  assembly  was  formed  with  a  membership 
of  3,000,  and  with  this  city  as  headquarters.  The  Knights  were 
strong  in  Springfield,  and  a  trial  of  strength  between  them  and  the 
city's  greatest  employer,  William  N.  Whitely,  soon  ensued.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  men  in  his  shops  were  Knights.  The 
organization  had  been  making  trouble  in  other  places,  and  it  was 
feared  that  there  would  be  trouble  here.  Those  men  that  were 
labor  leaders  here  twenty  years  ago  now  frankly  admit  that  the 
trouble  grew  out  of  a  misunderstanding  of  the  nature  and  plans 
of  the  Knights  of  Labor.  Fully  1,500  men  were  employed  by  the 
Whitelys,  and  when  one  day  the  foremen  made  an  examination 
they  found  that  1,000  men  were.  Knights.  Orders  were  imme- 
diately issued  for  the  discharge  of  every  man  who  would  not 
sign  an  iron-clad  agreement  promising  to  join  no  labor  organi- 
zation. The  firm  placed  a  great  sign  on  the  shop,  which  de- 
clared that  free  and  independent  workmen  only  would  be  em- 
ployed. This  action  provoked  intense  excitement,  and  a  riot 
seemed  imminent;  however,  the  advice  of  cooler  heads  was  fol- 
lowed, although  for  weeks  the  city  was  stirred  up  over  the  sit- 
uation to  a  degree  never  before  nor  since  equaled.  The  firm  re- 
fused a  compromise  on  any  conditions  except  complete  sur- 
render; and  those  "locked  out"  placed  a  boycott  on  all  the  firm's 
products,  and  enlisted  organized  labor  over  the  whole  country 
in  its  support.  The  boycott  was  powerful  enough  to  become  a 
strong  element  in  the  causes  bringing  financial  troubles  upon  these 
employers.  But  the  Knights  of  Labor,  as  a  general  organization, 
with  a  political  bias,  could  not  cope  with  the  establishment  and 
growth  of  separate  craft  organizations.  Soon  after  the  Whitely 
troubles  the  organization  waned;  and  by  1890,  nearly  all  the 
assemblies  in  the  city  were  discontinued ;  the  Mad  River  Assembly 
lived  until  1896.  During  the  period  of  their  greatest  strength,  the 
Knights  in  Springfield  exerted  a  great  influence  in  interesting 
their  members  and  the  people  generally  in  the  study  of  industrial 
and  economic  questions.  Many  speakers  of  prominence  were 
brought  here  for  the  purpose  of  agitation  and  education.  No 
other  troubles  than  those  mentioned  above  have  occurred.  Rela- 
tions between  employer  and  employes  have  been  harmonious. 


90  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

The  cigar  makers  united  in  1887,  and  later  the  bakers  and 
the  locomotive  firemen.  On  September  i,  1903,  there  were  in 
existence  in  the  city  62  craft  unions.  There  are  about  5,000 
workmen  in  these  organizations,  or  about  five  in  every  seven  of 
the  workers  in  the  trades  represented  by  these  unions.  The 
existence  of  the  general  body  of  Knights  had  impressed  upon 
the  minds  of  many  the  desirability  of  some  medium  for  united 
action.  A  meeting  was  called  early  in  1890  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  central  body;  seven  crafts  met  together  and  formed 
a  permanent  organization,  to  be  known  as  the  Trades  and  Labor 
Assembly.  The  preamble  to  its  constitution  sets  forth  the  follow- 
ing aims:  "To  promote  unity  of  sentiment  and  action  and  a 
spirit  of  fraternity  among  all  organizations."  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  this  central  assembly  has  done  much  good.  The  present  year 
is  only  one  among  many  in  which  the  assembly  has  been  interested 
in  securing  university  extension  lectures ;  every  year  the  assembly 
is  addressed  by  speakers  from  abroad  or  from  the  city.  It  has 
interested  itself  in  all  sorts  of  economic  and  social  questions;  it 
was  active  in  trying  to  secure  the  passage  of  the  Australian  Ballot 
Law;  it  has  given  support  to  the  bill  creating  a  State  Board  of 
Arbitration  and  State  Departments  of  Inspection  of  Workshops 
and  Factories.  In  1890  the  assembly  instituted  the  celebration 
of  Labor  Day ;  as  the  chief  features  of  the  day  it  provides  a  great 
parade,  and  an  array  of  speakers  and  various  amusements. 


(c)   ASSOCIATIONS  WITH  A  MORAL  PURPOSE 

The  private  associations  of  this  sort  have  been  pre-eminently 
those  formed  by  women.  Ever  since  the  first  association  for  work 
of  love  during  the  Civil  War,  the  women  have  organized  for  some 
work  of  charity.  Very  soon  after  the  war  a  "Woman's  Benevo- 
lent Society"  was  formed ;  this  society,  after  a  few  years,  resulted 
in  the  formation  of  the  Associated  Charities  of  the  city,  a  semi- 
public  organization  for  poor  relief. 

About  nine  years  ago  a  sewing  school  was  organized,  the 
expenses  being  partly  met  by  the  Associated  Charities  and  partly 
by  private  gifts.  The  school  is  undenominational;  it  is  large 
now  and  is  growing  steadily.  The  Needle  Work  Guild  is  another 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  91 

organization  of  the  women  of  the  city;  it  is  an  association  for 
the  relief  of  the  poor  by  means  of  gifts  and  clothing. 

The  Young  Women's  Mission  was  organized  in  1897  f°r 
the  purpose  of  caring  for  the  sick  poor.  One  of  the  best  illus- 
trations of  the  work  of  women  in  Springfield  is  the  Clark  Mer 
morial  Home  for  Aged  Women,  established  in  1899.  A  payment 
of  $200  must  be  made  by  those  who  enter  the  Home;  and  any 
property  they  may  be  possessed  of  at  the  time  of  their  death  is 
supposed  to  revert  to  the  Home.  The  women  of  the  city  bear 
the  expenses  of  maintaining  the  Home;  and  thus  far  they  have 
managed  successfully  to  meet  all  current  expense.  The  two 
Women's  Christian  Temperance  Unions  are  the  other  undenom- 
inational organizations  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  city  a  moral 
uplift;  their  influence  is  sometimes  overlooked  in  the  presence  of 
the  work  done  by  the  other  organizations  mentioned  above.  Their 
chief  work  has  been  in  extending  all  influences  that  make 
for  temperance  reform. 

(d)     POLITICAL    ASSOCIATIONS 

The  electors  in  the  city,  in  1900,  made  up  65  per  cent,  of  the 
electors  of  the  whole  county,  and  30.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  city 
population.  In  1900,  30.3  per  cent,  of  the  county  population  were 
voters;  in  1890,  28.1  per  cent.;  in  1880,  only  27.7  per  cent.;  and 
in  1870,  but  23.9  per  cent.  The  voting  population  of  the  city  has 
increased  a  little  over  29.2  per  cent,  since  1890,  and  that  of  the 
rural  population  a  little  more  than  6  per  cent. 

The  vote  of  the  county  from  year  to  year  shows  a  varying 
interest  in  the  city,  state,  and  national  affairs ;  and  has  never  failed 
to  be  Republican  in  state  and  national  elections.  The  rural  vote 
always  shows  a  Republican  majority  in  county  elections ;  but  the 
parties  in  the  city  are  about  equally  divided  on  local  affairs. 
Records  of  the  vote  of  the  political  parties  are  available  as  far  back 
as  1818.  In  1873,  the  records  first  separate  the  city  from  the 
county  vote.  From  a  comparison  of  the  vote  at  presidential  elec- 
tions in  the  county  since  1829,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  parties  are 
better  organized  now  than  they  were  formerly  ;  and  that  an  increas- 
ing proportion  of  the  voting  population  takes  a  practical  interest 
in  elections.  Before  1856,  it  was  seldom  that  more  than  75  per 


92  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

cent,  of  the  total  vote  was  gotten  out  in  presidential  elections,  but 
since  1864,  from  85  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  voters  have  been  repre- 
sented at  the  polls.  The  earliest  settlers  were  predominantly 
National  Republicans;  and,  later,  Whigs.  Until  1844  the  Whigs 
had  twice  as  many  adherents  as  the  Democrats. 

The  first  independent  party  in  the  county  appeared  in  1842, 
when  the  Abolitionists  polled  44  votes  out  of  a  total  of  more  than 
3,000  cast.  This  party  grew  slowly,  polling  only  67  votes  in  1852, 
and  then  rising  rapidly  to  360  in  1853.  In  1854  it  joined  the  Re- 
publican party.  The  other  independent  party  in  earlier  years  was 
the  -Know  Nothing;  in  1856  it  first  appeared  with  250  votes,  but  it 
disappeared  very  rapidly.  Since  1870,  there  have  been  many  in- 
dependent movements  in  the  county.  The  Greenback  party  began 
in  1873,  became  strongest  in  1878,  and  died  in  1880;  it  was  never 
very  large  and  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  strength  polled  fewer 
than  250  votes  out  of  a  total  of  some  9,000. 

The  greatest  independent  movement  was  the  Populist;  this 
party  grew  from  43  in  1884  to  some  1,200  in  1887.  By  1900, 
however,  this  movement,  also,  had  died  away. 

The  first  Prohibition  vote  in  the  county  was  cast  in  1870. 
The  large  vote  of  the  party  in  1874  was  evidently  due  to  the 
Women's  Crusade  and  the  Murphy  meetings  of  1873.  This  party 
has  had  a  checkered  career.  Presidential  elections  have  always 
brought  a  majority  of  its  adherents  back  to  the  old  parties.  The 
period  of  greatest  growth  was  between  1885  and  1889;  in  each 
of  those  years  the  vote  was  not  far  from  1,000.  The  vote  de- 
creased from  nearly  900  in  1890  to  79  in  1895.  In  the  election  of 
1903,  300  votes  were  cast.  Probably  one  reason  for  the  decline 
has  been  the  increase  of  other  independent  parties  since  1895.  In 
1895  the  Socialist  Labor  party  claimed  a  few  adherents;  it  cast 
only  38  votes  in  1903.  The  Social  Democrats  were  organized  in 
1900,  but  have  not  appeared  on  the  ticket  since.  The  Socialist 
party  appeared  in  1901  with  165  votes,  which  increased  to  more 
than  600  in  1902,  and  declined  again  to  345  in  1903.  This  party 
seems  to  have  caught  all  that  were  formerly  in  the  Union 
Reform  and  Social  Democratic  parties.  A  futile  attempt  was 
made  in  1897  to  organize  a  Negro  Protective  party,  but  the 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  93 

negroes  seem  to  be  too  much  attached  to  the  Republican  party  to 
join  any  independent  movement. 

Taking  the  county  as  a  whole  during  the  past  twenty  years, 
there  has  been  a  small  and  almost  a  constant  proportion  of  inde- 
pendent voters.  For  the  most  part  the  Greenback  movement  was 
a  rural  one.  In  general,  the  Prohibition  party  has  been  stronger 
in  the  country  than  in  the  city.  Since  1900,  however,  the  Prohibi- 
tionists in  the  city  have  been  more  numerous.  A  very  small  num- 
ber of  the  adherents  of  the  newer  parties  are  in  the  rural  districts. 

When  the  arrays  of  votes  of  the  two  great  parties  are  ar- 
ranged graphically,  the  two  polygons  for  the  county  show  a  re- 
markable similarity;  they  show  that  when  apathy  appears  in  one 
party,  it  is  quite  as  likely  to  appear  in  the  other.  The  rural  vote 
in  both  parties  has  been  much  more  even  than  in  the  city. 

The  private  political  clubs  have  been  more  numerous  among 
the  Republicans  than  among  the  Democrats.  At  present  the  Re- 
publicans have  a  large  club  actively  engaged  politically. 


A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


CHAPTER  IV.    THE  SOCIAL  WELFARE 
Section  1.    Economic 

The  economic  well  being  of  the  people  of  Clark  County  is 
manifest  in  various  ways,  and  many  of  these  have  already  been 
indicated  in  the  previous  portions  of  this  study.  The  public 
buildings  of  the  county  bear  witness  to  its  wealth.  The  majority 
of  the  farm  houses  bear  evidence  of  prosperity;  they  are  well 
furnished ;  an  increasing  number  are  equipped  with  long  distance 
telephones  and  other  modern  conveniences.  If  the  number  of 
dwellings  erected  is  an  index  of  prosperity,  the  county  is  enjoy- 
ing a  period  of  marked  prosperity.  Since  1900  more  dwellings 
have  been  erected  than  in  the  twenty-five  years  between  1859  an^ 
1875,  and  more  than  half  as  many  as  were  erected  during  the  last 
decade.  The  greater  part  of  this  increase  has  been  in  the  city. 
The  number  of  dwellings  in  Springfield  is  increasing  faster  than  in 
any  other  period  of  its  history,  save  in  the  years  1882  and  1883. 

In  the  country  the  value  of  all  lands  and  buildings  has  in- 
creased from  $6,000,000  in  1850  to  $12,000,000  in  1900.  The 
value  of  implements  has  increased  from  $144,000  in  1850  to 
^.16,000  in  1900;  and  the  value  of  live  stock  has  increased  from 
$1,373,000  in  1880  to  $1,615,000  in  1900;  the  total  value  of  farm 
products  has  increased  from  $2,286,000  in  1880  to  $2,904,000 
in  1900.* 

Of  the  13,386  private  families  living  in  the  county,  17.5 
per  cent,  lived  in  farm  homes  in  1900 ;  and  of  these  farm  homes,  60 
per  cent,  were  owned  by  the  occupants,  a  decrease  of  i  per  cent, 
from  the  proportion  in  1890,  and  9  per  cent,  from  1880.  Sixty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  farm  owners  owned  homes  free  from  all 
incumbrances.  This  is  4  per  cent,  less  than  the  number  in  1890. 
In  1900,  40  per  cent,  of  the  farms  were  tilled  by  renters,  a  slightly 
greater  number  than  in  1880. 

The  absolute  number  owning  farm  homes  has  decreased 
about  i  per  cent,  since  1880.  The  number  of  renters  has  increased 


•  Tabulated  from  assessors'  returns. 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO.  96 

41  per  cent,  from  1880  to  1890  and  I  per  cent,  since  1890.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  farmers  have  been  increasing  in 
well  being  since  1895,  relatively  to  the  period  1885-1895.  There 
are  about  2,400  homes  in  the  rural  districts  other  than  farm 
homes.  Of  these,  only  46  per  cent,  were  owned  in  1900  by  their 
occupants,  while  just  one-ha.lf  were  so  owned  in  1890.  Of  these 
homes,  60  per  cent,  were  free  from  incumbrance,  an  increase  of 
1 6  per  cent,  over  1890.  The  absolute  number  of  homes  owned 
by  their  occupants  is  about  2  per  cent,  less  than  in  1890,  while  the 
number  free  from  debt  has  increased  40  per  cent.  The  number 
of  renters  is  about  4  per  cent,  greater  than  in  1890. 

In  the  city  there  are  about  8,700  private  families ;  62  per  cent, 
of  these  live  in  rented  homes.  This  is  2  per  cent,  less  than  the 
proportion  in  1890.  Sixty-one  per  cent,  of  these  homes  are  free 
from  incumbrance — a  slight  decrease  since  1890.  The  absolute 
number  owned  has  increased  from  2.400  to  3,000,  an  increase  of 
25  per  cent.,  while  the  number  owned  free  has  increased  18  per 
cent. 

It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  of  the  1,000  negroes  living 
outside  the  city,  18  families,  representing  85  persons,  live  on  their 
own  farms;  and  25  families,  representing  probably  115  persons, 
live  on  rented  farms.  The  farm  owners  represent  about  8.5  per 
cent.,  and  the  renters  11.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  rural  negro  popu- 
lation. This  would  indicate  that  about  four-fifths  of  the  negroes 
are  either  laborers  living  on  farms  or  are  residents  of  the  smaller 
villages.  It  is  not  possible  to  find  the  number  of  negroes  in  the 
city  who  own  homes. 

We  have  already  indicated  the  nature  of  the  agricultural 
products  of  the  county,  and  only  a  word  more  is  necessary.  If 
returns  are  accurate,  there  are  far  fewer  cattle  and  sheep  in  the 
county  than  in  1850.  The  number  of  sheep  has  decreased  from 
53,000  in  1850,  to  20,000  in  1901.  The  wealth  of  the  agricultu- 
ral districts  consists  primarily  of  the  staples,  wheat  and  corn; 
the  average  yield  of  corn  during  the  past  five  years  has  been 
2,000,000  bushels.  Farm  laborers  are  scarce  and  in  great  de- 
mand. The  average  wages  are  $20  per  month,  with  board.  Day 
laborers  receive  from  $1.00  to  $1.50  per  day;  and  even  at  this 
price  many  farmers  complain  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  secure 
or  retain  desirable  workmen.  The  same  is  true  of  female  laborers 


96  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

in  the  rural  districts.  Although  there  are  as  yet  absolutely  no 
class  distinctions  between  employer  and  employe  on  the  farms, 
yet  it  is  well  nigh  an  impossibility  to  obtain  help  in  house  work. 
The  reason  is  readily  found  in  the  attractions  and  supposed  ad- 
vantages of  the  city,  where  work  is  to  be  obtained  in  shop  or 
store  at  a  meager  wage.  • 

The  manufacturing  interests  of  the  county  are  quite  large 
even  outside  the  city.  Various  causes  have  contributed  to  the  de- 
velopment and  advance  of  manufacturing  in  the  region.  "First," 
says  one  writer,  "must  be  considered  the  great  commercial  ad- 
vantages of  this  state;  Ohio  has  easy  water  communication  with 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  via  Lake  Erie  and  the  Erie  Canal,  and  with 
the  Northwest  by  the  lakes  and  St.  Marie  Canal,  while  the  Ohio 
River  furnishes  cheap  communication  with  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Mississippi  Valley."  Then,  too,  as  the  Twelfth  Census  report  sug- 
gests, the  pre-eminence  of  the  state  in  agriculture  created  an 
extensive  market  in  the  middle  of  the  century,  while  the  forests 
of  hard  wood  and  the  local  or  nearby  manufacture  of  iron  fur- 
nished abundant  supplies  of  the  chief  materials  for  manufactur- 
ers. Springfield  is  a  distributing  center  for  manufactured  prod- 
ucts. Each  year  whole  trainloads  of  these  products  leave  for 
the  West  and  Northwest  and  for  Eastern  ports,  to  be  shipped 
to  Russia,  Australia  and  other  grain  growing  countries.  While 
it  is  not  possible  to  distinguish  the  manufactures  of  the  city  and 
non-city  districts  further  back  than  1880,  yet  it  is  interesting  to 
compare  the  growth  of  the  county's  manufacturing  interests  as 
far  back  as  1850.  In  1850  there  were  200  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments in  the  county;  in  1900  the  number  was  391.  The  cap- 
ital invested  in  1850  was  about  $837,000:  in  1900  it  was 
$14,500,000.  In  1850  the  value  of  all  raw  material  used  was 
$1,242,000;  in  1900  it  was  $5,843,000.  In  1850  the  total  number  of 
•wage  earners  in  these  establishments  was  879,  an  average  of  4.4 
to  each  establishment  and  with  an  average  annual  wage  of 
$300.00  each  or  about  a  dollar  a  day  for  each  work  day;  by 
1870  the  number  of  employes  had  become  more  than  twice  as 
large,  with  an  average  annual  wage  of  $1.50  a  day  each.  The 
2,000  wage  earners  of  1870  doubled  by  1880;  and  in  1900  there 
were  6,806  employes,  an  increase  of  60  per  cent,  over  1880,  and 
an  average  of  17  to  each  establishment.  The  total  of  wages  paid 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  97 

amounted  to  an  average  of  $1.50  per  day  to  each  workman.  The 
value  of  the  product  in  the  county  increased  from  $1,960,000  in 
1850  to  more  than  $13,000,000  in  1900. 

The  smaller  towns  of  the  county  outside  the  city  have  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  manufacturing.  In  1900  there  were  86  such 
establishments,  with  a  capital  of  over  $500,000,  with  200  em- 
ployes and  an  average  daily  wage  of  $1.36  to  each  workman. 
The  value  of  the  product  is  considerably  over  $500,000  annually. 

The  city  in  1900  had  305  manufacturing  establishments,  an 
increase  of  33  over  1890.  The  capital  is  not  much  larger  than  in 
1890;  this  is  due  to  the  removal  from  the  city  of  the  great  White- 
ly  interests  and  the  consequent  withdrawal  of  $2,000,000  capi- 
tal. The  value  of  the  product  in  1880  was  $8,500,000,  and  in 
1900,  $12,800,000,  an  increase  of  more  than  50  per  cent.  The 
4,000  men  employed  in  the  establishments  in  1880  have  in- 
creased to  6,640  in  1900,  an  increase  of  over  67  per  cent.  More 
than  92  per  cent,  of  all  wage  earners  are  rated  as  above  16  years 
of  age ;  the  average  daily  wage  has  increased  very  rapidly.  In 
the  eighteen  months  from  January  i,  1900,  to  July  i,  1901,  there 
was  an  increase  of  19  factories  and  nearly  1,700  workmen.  Judg- 
ing from  the  rate  of  growth,  it  is  a  safe  calculation  to  state  that 
the  factory  employes  now  number  9.000  men  and  800  women. 
From  a  local  census  in  1901,  it  was  found  that  8,875  men  an^  816 
women  were  employed. 

As  regards  the  number  of  establishments  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing in  the  various  cities  of  the  country,  Springfield  held 
92d  rank  in  1900;  as  regards  the  gross  value  of  manufactured 
products,  7oth  place;  as  regards  capital  invested,  6ist  place,  a 
fall  from  5ist  place  in  1890;  as  regards  the  number  of  wage 
earners,  7ist  place  (68th  place  in  1890)  ;  in  total  wages,  63rd 
place,  a  rise  from  66th  place  in  1890,  and  from  56th  place  in 
1880.  Springfield  is  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  world  in 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements ;  only  one  other  city 
in  the  United  States  (Chicago)  outranks  her.  In  1860  there 
were  seven  small  establishments  of  this  character,  with  114  em- 
ployes and  an  average  wage  of  75  cents  a  day.  In  1900  the 
value  of  this  product  was  $5,350,000;  the  industry  employed  a 
capital  of  over  $8,000,000,  and  2,360  wage  earners  at  a  daily  wage 
of  $1.00  per  workman.  All  kinds  of  agricultural  implements  are 


98  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

made  here,  corn-planters,  grain-drills,  cultivators,  harrows,  har- 
vesters, self-binders,  hay-loaders,  hay-rakes,  hay-tedders,  mowers, 
reapers,  and  corn-shellers.  In  the  factories  producing  agricultural 
implements,  engine  and  factory  supplies,  very  few  women  are 
employed  except  as  clerks  and  stenographers  in  the  offices. 

Many  women  are  employed  in  the  large  publishing  houses,  of 
which  Springfield  has  many,  ranking  28th  city  in  the  country 
in  the  output  of  publishers'  and  printers'  material. 

There  are  many  causes  of  the  success  of  Springfield  in  man- 
ufacturing enterprises.  One  manufacturer  thinks  that  the  chief 
cause  is  co-operation.  "In  the  early  days  the  manufacturers  were 
in  frequent  consultation  with  one  another,  helping  one  another 
by  advice  and  in  a  financial  way.  Every  traveling  salesman  sent 
out  by  one  factory  recommended  all  the  others,  and  every  buyer 
visiting  one  shop  had  to  visit  all  the  others."  Another  present 
cause  is  the  energy  and  push  of  the  Commercial  Club  of  the  city. 
Employers  and  employes  are  on  better  terms  than  in  most 
cities.  One  manufacturer  says :  "Our  largest  employers  and  rich- 
est men  have  grown  up  from  very  modest  beginnings  and  their 
employes  have  grown  up  with  them;  a  large  number  of  our 
present  manufacturers  began  as  workmen  themselves.  Very 
few  cases  of  special  trouble  have  ever  occurred." 

The  majority  of  workmen,  even  in  labor  unions,  are  satis- 
fied with  the  wages  and  on  good  terms  with  their  employers. 
Some  labor  unions  have  sought  to  prevent  non-union  men  from 
working,  but  this  agitation  is  due  more  to  the  efforts  of  one 
or  two  walking  delegates  than  to  the  desire  of  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  unions.  This  freedom  from  labor  troubles  is  largely 
attributable  to  the  preponderance  of  the  old  native  stock ;  and  to 
the  fact  that  the  great  body  of  German  and  Irish  stock  has  been 
in  the  city  for  more  than  twenty  years.  The  average  laborer  has 
a  comfortable  home,  well  furnished,  and  possessing  not  only  the 
necessaries,  but  also  many  of  the  luxuries  of  life. 

The  economic  classes  in  the  rural  districts  are  not  divided 
by  any  social  cleavage ;  employer  and  employe  are  absolutely  on 
the  same  social  plane.  There  are  not  a  dozen  families  in  the 
country  districts  where  even  color  makes  any  difference  between 
employes  in  the  field  or  at  the  employer's  table.  We  do  not 
mean  to  say  that  there  are  any  social  relations  between  white 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  99 

and  colored  in  any  other  way  except  as  employer  and  employee. 
Possibly  the  reason  for  this  tolerance  of  the  negro  is  that  the 
country  generally  contains  the  better  class  of  colored  laborers. 

In  the  city  there  is  a  widening  cleavage  of  the  population 
along  economic  and  social  lines ;  and  yet  Springfield  possesses 
few  wealthy  people.  There  is  a  great  body  of  well-to-do  pro- 
fessional men,  merchants,  and  clerks.  The  greater  part  of  the 
population  consists  of  mechanics.  One  is  inclined  to  the  opinion 
that  the  social  divisions  are  attributable  to  a  bad  training  of  the 
younger  generation  of  the  fairly  well-to-do  classes  on  the  subject 
of  manual  labor,  and  to  false  ideas  concerning  wealth.  These 
class  distinctions  creep  out  in  many  social  clubs,  especially  among 
the  women.  There  seems  to  be  a  growing  tendency  to  class  dis- 
tinctions in  the  churches.  The  churches  are  largely  made  up  of 
the  merchant  and  manufacturing  class  and  a  few  skilled  workmen. 
The  writer  is  not  able  to  judge  how  many  of  the  laborers  are 
Protestants,  but  very  few  of  them  are  attendants  on  Protestant 
churches.  Probably  the  most  noticeable  division  among  the  work- 
ers is  that  of  color.  White  men  sometimes  sit  in  the  most  un- 
comfortable seats  in  the  street  car  rather  than  sit  with  a  colored 
workman.  This  tendency  has  been  noticed  by  many.  There 
are  few  skilled  laborers  among  the  colored,  and  there  are  very  few 
professional  men  among  them.  One  or  two  are  mail  carriers  and 
one  or  two  are  clerks  in  the  county  buildings.  There  are  a  few 
negro  merchants.  The  writer  knows  of  none  outside  the  grocery 
business  and  restaurant  keepers.  The  grocery  stores  are  very 
small  and  bear  evidence  that  they  are  not  extensively  patronized 
by  the  colored  population.  There  are  many  negro  barbers,  hack- 
men  and  teamsters. 

The  student  of  the  Sandy  Springs  negroes  says  that  do- 
mestic service  is  one  of  the  sources  of  the  growing  race  aliena- 
tion. As  far  as  our  observation  has  gone,  this  is  true  also  of 
Springfield.  Negro  women  seem  to  chafe  at  steady  employment 
as  servants. 

The  prejudice  against  the  negro  crops  out  once  in  a  while 
in  the  economic  life,  as  when  recently  a  druggist  refused  to  sell 
a  glass  of  soda  water  to  a  colored  man,  who  happened  to  be  an 
instructor  in  Wilberforce  College. 


100  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 


Section  2.    Cultural 

The  Lutherans  have  a  college  in  Springfield  which  has  grown 
from  an  institution  of  126  students  in  1850  to  500  in  1903.  There 
are  two  strong  business  colleges  and  several  other  private  schools. 
Until  1850  there  were  none  but  subscription  schools  in  the  city. 
In  the  rural  districts  until  1891  the  school  district  was  supreme; 
it  could  choose  its  own  teacher,  determine  his  salary  and  form 
the  course  of  study.  In  1891  the  state  established  township 
boards,  and  there  is  now  township  supervision  of  schools  through- 
out Ohio. 

Bethel  township  has  had  a  strong  high-school  for  nearly 
thirty  years,  and  has  had  a  great  influence  in  making  that  town- 
ship probably  the  most  progressive  in  the  whole  county.  Before 
the  introduction  of  local  township  high-schools,  many  of  the 
children  attended  the  city  high-school ;  now  nearly  all  of  the  town- 
ships have  high-schools. 

In  1901  there  were  102  township  districts  and  20  separate 
incorporated  districts  in  the  whole  county.  In  the  township  dis- 
tricts there  were  134  rooms  and  in  the  separate  districts  174 
rooms.  There  were  134  teachers  in  the  township  schools  and 
180  in  the  incorporated  places.  The  wages  of  the  teachers  are 
an  index  of  the  attitude  of  a  community  toward  education.  Dur- 
ing the  past  year  it  has  been  difficult  to  obtain  teachers  for  the 
country  schools  at  the  wages  offered.  One  township  superin- 
tendent said  that  many  men  left  positions  as  teachers  to  become 
motormen  and  conductors  on  the  street  railways  in  Springfield 
and  Dayton,  since  there  was  more  money  in  such  work  than  in 
school  teaching.  Wages  have  increased  very  slightly  in  twenty- 
five  years.  In  1880  the  average  salary  in  the  township  schools  was 
$41  per  month  for  men  and  $33  for  women.  In  1890  the  average 
wages  of  men  had  increased  to  $48  and  of  women  to  $41  per 
month. 

By  1901,  men's  wages  had  fallen  to  $46,  and  women's  had 
risen  to  $44.  In  the  incorporated  districts  in  1901  the  average 
of  men's  wages  in  the  elementary  schools  was  $71  per  month 
and  of  women's  wages  $42.  This  is  less  than  either  men  or 
women  received  in  1890  or  1880.  In  the  incorporated  high- 


CLARK    COUNTY,   OHIO. 

schools  men's  wages  fell  from  $102  in  1890  to  $96  in  1901 ;  and 
women's  wages  from  $70  in  1890  to  $53  in  1901.  Probably  these 
wage  changes  have  been  due,  not  to  the  cutting  of  the  wages  o£ 
old  teachers,  but  to  the  hiring  of  new  teachers  at  a  lower  wage.  , 

During  the  past  26  years  the  township  schools  have  been 
in  session  34  weeks  of  each  year  and  the.  separate  schools  an 
average  of  36  weeks.  In  general  the  country  high-schools  are 
open  from  four  to  eight  weeks  less  time  than  the  primary  schools. 
In  1901  the  school  enumeration  in  the  county  was  15,983,  an 
increase  of  9.3  per  cent,  over  1890.  The  total  school  enrollment  in 
the  county,  however,  is  increasing  at  a  fairly  rapid  rate.  In  1901 
72  per  cent,  of  the  enumeration  was  enrolled.  From  1880  to 
1890  the  enrollment  increased  32  per  cent.,  while  the  school 
population  increased  just  one-half  as  much ;  and  from  1890  to 
1901  the  enrollment  increased  9.5  per  cent,  and  the  enumeration 
9.3  per  cent.  In  1901  the  boys  enrolled  numbered  very  little 
less  than  half  the  total  enrollment,  an  increase  of  30.7  per  cent, 
since  1880:  in  the  same  time  the.  enrollment  of  girls  increased 
32.6  per  cent. 

In  the  township  schools  the  enrollment  of  boys  has  de- 
creased since  1880;  the  decrease  between  1890  and  1901  was 
10  per  cent.  The  enrollment  of  the  girls  decreased  7  per  cent, 
between  1890  and  1901.  The  enumeration  in  the  townships  is 
5,000  and  the  enrollment  79  per  cent,  of  this  number.  In  every 
township  there  are  fewer  youth  enrolled  than  twenty  or  even 
ten  years  ago.  This  is  another  result  due  to  the  movement  of 
the  younger  population  of  the  married  and  unmarried  to  the 
city;  and  in  part  due  to  the  removal  from  township  to  separate 
school  districts. 

In  the  separate  districts  the  number  of  boys  enrolled  is  dou- 
ble that  of  1880,  and  20  per  cent,  greater  than  in  1890.  The  num- 
ber of  girls  enrolled  is  more  than  double  the  number  in  1880,  and 
30  per  cent,  greater  than  in  1890. 

The  per  cent,  of  daily  attendance  on  total  enrollment  shows  a 
constant  increase,  rising  in  the  townships  from  50  in  1880  to 
69  in  1901 ;  and  in  the  separate  districts  from  76  to  82. 

The   attitude   of   the    people   toward   secondary   education   is 
further  shown  by  the  high-school  enrollment.     The  enrollment 


102  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

in  the  township  high-schools  is  steadily  increasing.  There  were 
only  21  pupils  in  the  township  high-schools  in  1880  and  135 
in  1901.  This  does  not  represent  the  number  in  the  townships, 
however,  who  were  receiving  high-school  education,  for  many 
are  enrolled  in  the  city  and  town  high-schools.  The  number  of 
boys  in  the  township  high-schools  has  increased  from  12  in 
1880  to  70  in  1901 ;  and  of  girls  from  9  to  65  in  the  same  time. 
In  the  separate  districts  in  the  same  period  the  number  of  boys 
increased  from  107  to  307  and  of  girls  from  143  to  467. 

The  school  census  of  1901  presents  some  interesting  data 
concerning  the  enumeration  at  different  ages.  In  the  total  enu- 
meration 28.3  per  cent,  were  over  16;  14.1  per  cent,  were  between 
14  and  16;  42.3  per  cent,  between  8  and  14;  and  the  remainder, 
15.3  per  cent.,  under  eight.  This,  by  the  way,  would  certainly 
make  at  least  an  average  of  over  900  births  annually  in  the 
county  for  the  years  1893,  1894  and  1895,  and  is  another  proof 
of  the  inaccuracy  of  the  county  birth  records. 

In  Springfield  the  school  enumeration  has  more  than  doubled 
since  1880.  Between  1890  and  1900  the  increase  was  13.7  per 
cent.,  while  the  general  population  increased  19.9  per  cent.  In 
1902  the  enumeration  was  10,619,  °f  whom  the  boys  were 
50.3  per  cent.  The  per  cent,  of  enrollment  in  public  schools  on 
enumeration  has  been  as  follows:  1876,  49.7  per  cent.;  1880,  54.6 
per  cent. ;  1890,  60.2  per  cent. ;  and  in  1900  65  per  cent.  In 
1900,  12.2  per  cent,  were  in  Roman  Catholic  schools  and  2.2 
per  cent,  in  other  private  schools.  In  all,  79.7  per  cent,  were 
in  schools  of  some  kind,  and  84.1  per  cent,  of  all  between  6 
and  16  were  enrolled  in  the  public  schools. 

There  were  817  colored  pupils  in  the  public  schools,  or  12.1 
per  cent,  of  the  enrollment.  Not  quite  so  great  a  proportion  of 
the  colored  population  is  in  school  as  the  proportion  of  the 
whites.  Apropos  of  the  current  discussion  of  the  race  problem, 
it  is  interesting  to  note  the  number  of  colored  youth  in  the 
different  grades  of  the  public  schools.  In  1900  just  55.7  per 
cent,  of  the  total  colored  enrollment  was  found  in  the  first  four 
primary  grades.  The  proportion  of  whites  is  51.6  per  cent.  Of 
the  colored,  25.1  per  cent,  were  in  the  first  two  grammar  grades; 
of  the  whites  21.9  per  cent.  This  means  that  80.8  per  cent,  of  the 
colored  and  73.5  per  cent,  of  the  white  pupils  were  found  in  the 


CLARK  COUNTY,  OHIO.  103 

first  six  grades.  In  the  last  two  grammar  grades  were  found  11.9 
per  cent,  of  the  colored  and  14.8  per  cent,  of  the  whites.  The 
remainder,  7.3  per  cent,  of  the  colored  and  n.i  per  cent,  of 
the  whites,  were  in  high-school.  Forty-six  per  cent,  of  both 
colored  and  white  pupils  in  high-school  were  in  the  first  year; 
and  less  than  half  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  total  colored  enroll- 
ment and  1.6  per  cent,  of  the  white  enrollment  were  in  the 
graduating  class. 

Nearly  one-third  of  the  total  enrollment  was  found  to  be 
between  five  and  nine  years  of  age ;  51.6  per  cent,  between  10  and 
14  years;  15.6  per  cent,  between  15  and  20  years.  Nearly  91  per 
cent,  of  all  between  10  and  14  years,  and  91  per  cent,  between  15 
and  20  years  were  white.  The  number  of  foreign  whites  is  very 
small,  fewer  than  50  in  all ;  71.8  per  cent,  of  the  whites  were  native 
whites  of  native  parents. 

It  is  our  belief  that  one  reason  why  colored  children  do 
not  enter  high-school  is,  as  one  boy  expressed  it:  "Because  in 
Springfield  I  can  get  no  better  work  to  do  even  if  I  have  more 
education."  Many  of  the  colored  graduates  leave  Springfield, 
some  going  to  Wilberforce  College  and  others  going  South  to 
teach  in  colored  schools.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  educated 
negro  has  little  chance  in  Springfield  to  do  much  else  than  un- 
skilled labor. 

Springfield  has  always  been  interested  in  libraries,  as  is 
proven  by  the  efforts  made  from  the  earliest  days  to  establish 
one.  In  1850  there  were  three  small  libraries  with  an  aggregate 
of  3,800  volumes.  One  of  these  was  public.  In  1891  Benjamin 
Warder  gave  a  fine  building  to  the  city  for  library  purposes. 
There  are  now  about  20,000  volumes  in  the  city  library.  During 
the  past  year  there  have  been  about  5,600  card  holders;  it  is  not 
possible  to  find  the  number  who  use  the  reading  room  daily.  The 
circulation  of  books  was  74,177  in  1903,  an  increase  of  about  5,000 
over  1900,  and  yet  over  1,400  less  than  in  1897.  The  circulation 
of  non-juvenile  books  in  1903  was  22.7  per  cent,  of  all.  About 
55.3  per  cent,  were  works  of  fiction,  3.3  per  cent,  history,  3.7 
per  cent,  literature,  3.3  per  cent,  travel,  2.6  per  cent,  biog- 
raphy, and  the  remainder  scattering. 


104  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

(a)    ILLITERACY 

In  the  rural  districts  there  is  a  very  small  percentage  of 
actual  illiteracy.  Among  the  native  whites  over  21  years  of  age 
in  1900  less  than  4  per  cent,  were  illiterate.  A  little  more  than 
19  per  cent,  of  the  rural  colored  males  over  21  years  were  illit- 
erate. In  the  city  a  very  small  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  under 
21  were  illiterate ;  only  55  males  under  21  in  1890,  and  but  half 
that  number  in  1900.  Of  all  the  males  in  Springfield  over  21 
(11,780)  8,640  were  native  whites;  1.5  per  cent,  of  these  were 
illiterate.  The  foreign  born  numbered  1,492,  with  10  per  cent, 
illiterate;  16  per  cent,  of  aliens,  I  per  cent,  of  the  native  whites 
of  native  parents,  and  a  little  more  than  i  per  cent,  of  the  native 
whites  of  foreign  parents  were  illiterate. 

There  were  i,ni  negroes  in  the  city  over  21  years  in  1900; 
one-fifth  of  them  were  illiterate.  This  great  proportion  is  due 
to  the  great  number  of  recent  immigrants  from  the  South.  A 
trifle  over  3  per  cent,  of  the  total  city  population  in  1900  were 
classed  as  illiterate;  2.7  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  3.5  per  cent, 
of  the  females.  One-sixth  of  all  male  and  one-eighth  of  all  fe- 
male illiterates  were  between  the  ages  of  20  to  24 ;  43  per  cent,  of 
the  males  and  38  per  cent,  of  the  females  were  from  35  to  54  years 
of  age.  In  each  class  there  is  a  great  decrease  in  number  since 
1890. 

Section  3.     Vitality  Classes 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  birth  and  death  rates;  the 
statistics  of  births  and  deaths  do  not  admit  of  such  comparison 
as  will  give  any  idea  as  to  the  relative  number  of  births  and 
deaths  in  the  different  elements  of  the  social  population.  From 
the  death  records  we  learn  that  the  chief  causes  of  death  are 
consumption,  typhoid  fever,  cancer,  paralysis,  heart  disease,  pneu- 
monia and  Bright's  disease.  Notwithstanding  the  increase  in  pop- 
ulation, especially  in  the  city,  and  the  unsanitary  conditions  of  the 
city,  there  are  relatively  fewer  deaths  from  typhoid  than  twenty 
years  ago.  Consumption  has  decreased  relatively  during  the  past 
twenty  years.  Heart  disease  (a  name  loosely  used  by  assessors 
and  physicians  too)  has  increased  very  greatly.  Deaths  from 
pneumonia  also  have  increased.  In  1903  the  deaths  from  con- 


CLARK   COUNTY,  OHIO.  105 

sumption  were  more  than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
deaths ;  while  those  due  to  pneumonia  were  slightly  less  than  ten 
per  cent.  In  1890  the  proportions  were  14  and  2  per  cent,  re- 
spectively. Bright's  disease  seems  to  be  increasing  also,  judging 
from  the  increased  number  of  deaths  from  that  cause. 

In  the  city  in  1901,  3.24  per  cent,  of  all  deaths  were,  due 
to  typhoid,  11.24  Per  cent,  to  consumption,  3.43  per  cent,  to 
cancer,  8.19  per  cent,  to  cerebral  congestion  and  hemorrhage, 
3.81  per  cent,  to  organic  heart  disease,  6.67  per  cent,  to  Bright's 
disease,  10.29  per  cent,  to  senile  debility,  4.57  per  cent,  to 
suicide,  4.57  per  cent,  to  accident,  and  the  remainder  scattering. 
This  would  mean  the  following  death  rates  per  1,000:  Con- 
sumption, 1.54;  cerebral  congestion,  1.124;  pneumonia,  1.28; 
organic  heart  disease,  1.072;  Bright's  disease,  .915;  senile  de- 
bility, 1.412. 

Section  4.    Defective  Classes 

In  the  whole  of  Clark  County  in  1890,  according  to  the 
United  States  census,  there  were  38  persons  who  were  totally 
blind,  or  7.3  per  10,000;  147  were  partially  or  totally  blind, 
a  rate  of  28  per  10,000.  There  were  50  deaf  and  dumb  persons,  a 
rate  of  9.5  per  10,000,  and  149  were  deaf  only,  or  28  per  10,000. 

There  were  104  feeble-minded  persons,  or  19.7  per  10,000. 
Of  the  feeble-minded  54  were  white  and  50  colored,  a  rate  re- 
spectively of  11.3  and  107.7  Per  10,000;  62  were  male  and  42 
were  female,  a  rate  of  23.5  and  16.2  respectively.  There  were 
117  insane,  or  a  rate  of  22.3  per  10,000;  69  were  males  and  48 
females,  a  rate  of  26.2  and  19.2  respectively.  The  Clark  County 
records  are  defective  as  regards  the  statistics  of  insane  and 
epileptic.  In  very  few  years  has  there  been  any  separate  record 
of  whites  and  negroes.  The  number  of  insane  and  epileptic  sent 
to  the  asylums  each  year  varies  greatly.  In  1879  the  rate  per 
10,000  was  2.6;  in  1880,  4.3;  the  average  between  1880  and  1890 
exactly  6;  and  the  annual  average  between  1890  and  1900  was 
5.8.  The  year  1902  furnished  the  exceptional  rate  of  12,  which 
dropped  again  to  3.8  in  1903.  The  relative  numbers  of  male  and 
female  insane  show  no  especial  correlation  in  rates.  In  general 
the  number  of  females  is  only  half  as  large  as  that  of  the  males. 


I 
106  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

If  the  statistics  are  accurate  and  if  we  do  not  reckon  the  year 
1902,  insanity  has  made  no  increase  during  the  past  six  years. 

Section  5.    Morality  and  Socially  Classes 

It  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  determine  the  numbers  in 
the  different  morality  classes  from  statistics.  Some  approach 
to  it  is  possible  from  the  records  of  the  city  police  courts.  It 
is  not  possible  to  make  a  comparative  study  of  these  records, 
since  no  summaries  are  made.  The  following  statistics  are 
taken  from  the  United  States  Labor  Bulletin  of  September,  1901. 
In  that  year  353  arrests  were  made  for  drunkenness,  24.3  per 
cent,  of  all  arrests;  196  were  for  disturbing  the  peace;  143 
for  assault  and  battery;  145  for  vagrancy;  152  for  larceny;  448 
for  other  minor  offences.  There  were  143  saloons  in  the  city ; 
this  is  3.6  to  every  1,000  inhabitants,  or  one  to  282  persons.  Out- 
side of  the  city  there  are  no  saloons  except  in  one  village. 

As  is  usual  in  many  cities,  the  worst,  if  there  be  a  "worst," 
of  these  saloons  and  houses  of  ill-repute  are  along  the  railroad 
yards.  In  Springfield  since  1874  the  region  around  the  Big  Four 
Railroad  yards  has  been  known 'as  the  "Levee,"  and  has  been 
given  over  to  a  swarm  of  courtesans  and  criminals ;  and  brothels, 
gambling  dens  and  saloons  abound.  It  is  one  of  the  gathering 
places  for  the  colored  criminals  of  the  country.  The  city's  in- 
stitutions for  the  punishment  of  offenders  have  been  for  years 
an  abomination  in  the  sight  of  all  good  people.  The  city  has 
no  workhouse,  although  one  is  at  last  being  constructed.  Offend- 
ers have  generally  been  sent  to  the  Dayton  workhouse.  The 
culprits  awaiting  trial  in  police  court  have  been  housed  in  an 
old,  half-ruined,  worthless  hulk  of  a  building,  deficient  and  de- 
fective in  every  particular.  The  sanitary  condition  of  the  prison 
is  deplorable.  No  apartment  is  reserved  for  youthful  offenders, 
but  they  are  crowded  together  in  the  same  room  with  the  hard- 
ened criminals  to  the  lasting  detriment  of  their  own  lives. 

In  Springfield  one  of  the  chief  faults  of  the  municipal  sys- 
tem has  been  and  is  the  laxity  and  discrimination  in  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  law.  Many  of  the  municipal  ordinances  have  been 
shelved  for  years.  The  saloon  closing  ordinances  are  enforced 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  107 

intermittently,  as  are  also  other  ordinances,  e.  g.,  those  concern- 
ing gambling. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  give  statistics  of  the  unsocial  classes. 
The  statistics  of  pauperism  are  incomplete,  for  many  are  cared 
for  as  out-of-door  poor,  from  township  funds,  and  these  are  not 
reported  to  the  county  authorities. 

Clark  County's  pauper  class  is  cared  for  at  the  infirmary  or 
poor  farm,  and  the  children's  home.  Happily,  political  con- 
siderations have  never  entered  into  the  appointment  of  the  officers 
of  the  children's  home.  The  officers  of  the  infirmary  are  elect- 
ive. The  present  flourishing  condition  of  the  home  is  due  large- 
ly to  the  excellent  supervision  of  the  superintendent.  All  able- 
bodied  parents  having  children  in  the  home  must  help  to  pay  for 
their  support.  There  were  in  1903,  64  children  in  the  home,  10 
fewer  than  last  year,  and  55  were  admitted  during  the  year.  A 
great  feature  of  the  home  is  the  placing  of  children  in  good 
homes ;  26  were  thus  taken  out  on  trial  in  1903  and  36  others 
were  taken  by  their  parents ;  two  were  adopted  and  one  was 
indentured.  The  greatest  number  in  the  home  at  any  one  time  in 
1903  was  72  and  the  smallest  54.  The  negroes  for  ten  years  have 
formed  a  very  heavy  proportion  of  the  total  number.  On  the 
whole  the  management  of  the  home  has  been  successful. 

In  the  earliest  years  of  its  history  the  county  farmed  out  its 
poor  to  the  lowest  bidders.  In  1835  a  poor  farm  was  established 
and  buildings  were  erected.  In  1875  89  persons  were  supported 
in  the  infirmary  at  an  average  cost  of  33  cents  a  day  each.  This 
number  made  a  rate  of  about  two  per  1,000  of  the  county  pop- 
ulation. This  number  increased  to  154  in  1880,  an  average  of 
3.6  per  1,000  of  the  total  population.  In  1881  the  county  rec- 
ords began  a  separate  entry  of  white  and  colored,  and  of  the 
total  of  165  paupers  in  that  year  127  were  white  and  38  colored, 
or  a  rate  of  3.3  and  10.6  per  1,000  respectively.  In  1890  the 
number  was  256,  of  whom  118  were  received  during  the  year; 
38  of  these  were  colored  (15  per  cent.).  Among  the  white 
paupers  there  were  more  than  twice  as  many  men  as  women ;  and 
among  the  negro  paupers  the  number  was  equally  divided  between 
the  sexes.  The  number  of  white  paupers  averaged  4.6  per  1,000 
whites,  and  of  colored  8.2  per  1,000  negroes. 

In  1902,  1 66  whites  and  51  negroes  were  supported,  making 


108  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

a  rate  of  3.1  and  9.7  per  1,000  respectively.  The  males  among 
the  whites  equaled  58.4  per  cent,  of  all  whites,  and  the  colored 
males  60.8  per  cent,  of  all  colored. 

Pauperism  has  not  made  any  great  increase  in  the  county. 
Only  twice  since  1886  has  it  been  greater  than  in  that  year.  The 
number  admitted  yearly  to  public  support  varies  greatly.  The 
greatest  number  ever  received  since  1880  was  in  1884,  when  274 
were  admitted.  From  1894  the  number  increased  until  1898,  since 
which  time  it  has  gradually  fallen,  and  in  1902  there  were  fewer 
persons  admitted  than  in  any  year  since  1881.  The  relative 
number  of  colored  to  white  has  increased  during  the  past  ten 
years.  The  number  otherwise  supported  than  in  the  infirmary 
has  been  recorded  in  a  few  years  only,  so  that  the  figures  that 
are  given  are  worthless  for  comparison. 

Of  those  in  the  almshouses  in  1890,  61  per  cent,  of  the 
males  and  68  per  cent,  of  the  females,  or  64  per  cent,  of  all, 
were  illiterate.  In  1902,  67  per  cent,  of  the  men  and  52  per  cent, 
of  all  the  women  were  illiterate,  as  also  were  67  per  cent,  of  all 
white  males,  46  per  cent,  of  white  females,  68  per  cent,  of  all 
colored  males  and  70  per  cent,  of  all  colored  females. 

The  average  daily  cost  of  maintaining  each  pauper  has  been 
about  26  cents  for  several  years.  In  Springfield  many  of  the  poor 
are  cared  for  by  the  Associated  Charities.  This  association  has 
expended  in  cash  an  average  of  about  $5,000  annually.  In 
addition  there  have  been  large  donations  of  food  and  clothing. 
The  reports  of  the  society  vary  little  from  year  to  year,  so  that 
a  resume  of  the  last  two  years  will  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  char- 
acter of  this  work. 

During  1902.  530  families,  comprising  about  1,800  persons, 
were  aided.  This  makes  an  average  of  one  to  every  22  in  the 
city  population,  or  4.5  per  cent,  of  the  population.  About  half 
(255)  of  these  families  were  composed  of  married  couples  and 
their  children;  172  (32  per  cent.)  were  families  of  widows  and  9 
per  cent,  were  families  of  deserted  wives. 

Of  the  1,797  individuals  assisted,  576,  or  32  per  cent.,  were 
under  14  years  of  age;  831,  or  46  per  cent.,  were  under  20;  384 
between  20  and  40;  331  between  40  and  55;  and  182  (10  per 
cent.)  between  55  and  70.  Forty-one  per  cent,  of  the  heads 
of  families  were  native  whites,  and  48.1  per  cent,  were  colored; 


CLARK   COUNTY,  OHIO.  109 

8  per  cent,  were  Irish,  2.5  per  cent.  German,  and  4  per  cent.  Eng- 
lish. Of  the  individuals  aided,  957,  or  53.2  per  cent.,  were  white 
and  840,  or  46.8  per  cent.,  colored.  Estimating  the  white  popula- 
tion at  36,000  and  the  colored  at  5,000,  this  last  statement  means 
that  while  one  white  person  out  of  every  37  whites  received 
charity,  one  out  of  every  six  colored  persons  received  help.  Of 
all  the  heads  of  families  64.3  per  cent,  could  read  and  write, 
while  30  per  cent,  were  wholly  illiterate. 

The  record  of  causes  of  poverty  brings  out  the  fact  already 
claimed  by  Rowntree  in  England,  that  pauperism  generally  is  not 
due  primarily  to  drink.  More  than  one-fourth  of  all  cases  (26 
per  cent.)  were  caused  by  sickness  of  the  bread-winner  or  his 
family ;  23.7  per  cent,  by  insufficient  earnings ;  14.8  per  cent,  by 
lack  of  employment;  10.5  per  cent,  by  lack  of  male  support;  11.3 
per  cent,  by  old  age ;  7.3  per  cent,  by  shiftlessness ;  2.5  per  cent, 
by  accident,  and  the  remainder  by  various  causes.  The  superin- 
tendent of  charities  seeks  to  make  a  careful  canvass  of  all  cases 
and  to  discourage  promiscuous  charity.  For  a  time  a  part  of  the 
plan  was  a  system  of  loans,  but  it  has  been  abused  to  a  great 
extent.  Every  effort  is  being  put  forth  to  help  the  poor  to  help 
themselves. 

Section  6.    The  Desocialized 

The  jail  statistics  of  the  county  vary  considerably.  In  1875 
there  were  187  persons  in  the  jail  at  different  times;  and  in  1901 
there  were  330,  fewer  than  in  any  one  year  since  1893.  These 
numbers  would  make  a  rate  of  one  to  each  200  in  population  in 
1875  ancl  one  to  every  182  in  1901.  The  greatest  number  in 
any  one  year  was  499  in  1894  or  one  to  every  112  in  the  popu- 
lation. 

Of  the  330  prisoners  in  1901,  38  per  cent,  were  natives  of 
Ohio,  a  much  smaller  proportion  than  in  any  previous  year  since 
1875 ;  60  per  cent,  were  native  of  other  portions  of  the  United 
States,  and  2  per  cent,  were  foreign  born.  The  number  of  foreign 
born  has  never  been  very  great  for  the  majority  of  the  years 
since  1875;  the  highest  percentages  have  been  15  in  1886,  and 
again  in  1896.  The  number  under  age  was  never  reported  before 
1889.  The  proportion  in  1901  was  22.5  per  cent.  The  proportions 


110  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

of  white  and  colored  prisoners  have  varied  greatly.  In  1875,  93 
per  cent,  were  white,  in  1880,  66  per  cent.,  in  1885.  72  per  cent., 
in  1890,  58  per  cent.,  and  in  1901,  62.5  per  cent.  The  relative 
number  of  colored  criminals  has  been  larger  than  that  of  whites, 
e.  g.,  in  1880  there  was  one  white  criminal  to  every  461  white 
persons  in  the  population,  and  one  colored  criminal  to  every  84 
colored  persons.  In  1895  the  proportion  was  one  to  203  of  the 
whites  and  one  to  every  29  of  the  colored.  In  1901  there  was  one 
white  criminal  to  every  250  white  persons  and  one  colored  criminal 
to  every  47  in  the  colored  population  in  the  county. 

In  1901,  92  per  cent,  of  the  prisoners  were  male  and  8 
per  cent,  female;  there  were  fewer  females  than  in  any  year 
since  1887.  ^n  I9OI>  9  Per  cent-  °f  the  total  number  were  wholly 
illiterate  and  only  one  person  had  a  higher  education.  The  av- 
erage cost  of  keeping  the  prisoners  was  45  cents  each  per  diem 
and  has  not  varied  for  many  years. 

Section  7.    Conclusion* 

In  the  chapter  on  the  Social  Mind,  we  have  already  summed 
up  the  mental  and  moral  characteristics  of  both  the  rural  and  the 
urban  population.  It  is  not  necessary,  therefore,  to  repeat  what 
has  been  said  in  that  chapter ;  nevertheless,  we  may  here  em- 
phasize many  of  the  more  important  conclusions  toward  which 
our  study  has  led  us. 

Our  study  has  revealed  to  us  a  rural  community,  growing 
very  slowly  in  population,  practically  homogeneous,  and  in  which 
the  process  of  social  selection  is  rapidly  going  on.  One  of  the 
most  striking  and  important  phenomena  disclosed  in  a  study  of 
the  rural  population  is  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  those  who 
own  farms,  and  other  rural  homes.  The  tendency  toward  tenant 
farming  is  not  as  yet  general,  but  it  is  growing  in  certain  portions 
of  the  county ;  and  wherever  this  sort  of  farming  has  been  intro- 
duced, there  has  been  a  deterioration  in  the  tenant  class.  There 
seems  to  be  a  marked  difference  between  the  old  conditions  of 
tenantry,  where  the  tenant  had  an  opportunity  to  become  the  owner 
of  the  property,  and  modern  conditions  of  high  and  often  unfair 


*  Written  in  April,  1904. 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  Ill 

rents,  which  discourage  the  tenant  from  any  attempt  toward 
bettering  his  condition.  In  Clark  County,  however,  in  most  of 
the  townships,  the  farms  are  still  tenanted  by  their  owners ;  but  this 
threatens  to  be  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  for  the  rural  pop- 
ulation to  solve. 

The  exclusively  rural  population  is  still  largely  influenced 
by  the  ideas  and  ideals  of  the  earlier  and  more  austere  inhabit- 
ants. One  may  find  everywhere  that  old-fashioned  respect  and 
reverence  for  law,  order,  and  justice  which  has  been  the  main- 
stay of  the  American  civil  and  political  structure. 

I  do  not  believe  that  the  problem  of  the  rural  community, 
however,  is  that  of  the  farming  class.  Rather  it  is  that  of  the 
little  villages  and  hamlets  which  are  slowly  but  surely  suffering  a 
decline  in  moral  tone  and  vigor.  Their  ideas  are  more  narrow, 
and  their  ideals  decidedly  lower  than  those  of  the  purely  rural 
population.  What  the  movement  from  the  city  to  country, 
brought  about  by  the  introduction  of  the  interurban  trolley,  will 
be  able  to  do  for  these  villages  is  an  interesting  question  and  will 
repay  further  investigation.  One  of  the  noticeable  features  of  the 
growth  of  the  city  is  the  relatively  greater  increase  of  the  native 
whites  of  native  parents.  One  is  astonished  also  at  the  great 
increase  of  colored  males,  and  also  at  the  great  decrease  of  the 
foreign  born,  and  the  movement  from  the  city  of  the  native 
whites  of  foreign  parents.  The  immigration  of  colored  males 
into  Springfield  is  very  great;  four-fifths  of  the  total  increase 
of  this  class  since  1890  is  owing  to  this  cause.  This  increase  is 
especially  noticeable  in  comparison  with  the  white  males,  among 
whom  only  about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  increase  is  owing  to  immi- 
gration. It  is  a  fair  inference  that  if  there  were  no  negro  immi- 
grants into  the  city,  there  would  be  a  constant  relative  decrease  in 
that  population  element.  As  it  is,  one  of  the  chief  problems  of  this 
city  is  that  of  race. 

Another  phenomenon  not  readily  explained  is  the  great  and 
increasing  number  of  divorces,  the  great  majority  of  which  are 
brought  by  residents  of  the  city.  At  present  there  is  no  means 
of  knowing  the  relation  of  divorces  to  the  different  elements  of 
the  population,  or  to  the  economic  or  religious  classes.  Certainly 
the  number  of  divorces  indicates  very  low  ideals  in  regard  to  the 
sanctity  of  marriage  and  of  family  ties. 


112  A  SOCIOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF 

In  our  study  we  have  had  revealed  again  and  again  the  fact 
that  the  social  ideal  of  this  community  is  the  economic.  In  this 
particular,  however,  this  city  is  probably  not  unlike  the  majority 
of  American  cities.  There  seems  to  be  ho  abiding  desire  for  aught 
else  than  that  which  will  serve  to  bring  about  immediate  material 
well-being.  This,  as  shown  in  another  place,  is  revealed  by  the 
attitude  of  the  people  on  questions  of  religion  and  education. 

Since  writing  the  body  of  this  study,  an  event  has  occurred 
which  well  illustrates  the  character  of  the  community  as  viewed 
from  the  moral  and  social  standpoints.  I  refer  to  the  riots 
which  occurred  in  the  early  part  of  March  (1904),  at  which  time 
a  mob  was  formed  and  on  one  night  lynched  a  negro  who  had 
murdered  a  white  policeman  the  day  before.  The  next  night  the 
same  mob  again  assembled  and  burned  the  "Levee,"  the  city's 
notorious  district,  where  were  located  many  negro  brothels.  The 
presence  of  the  state  militia  was  necessary  to  restore  quiet.  The 
mob  was  headed  by  the  rougher  element  of  the  city,  although  in 
the  ranks  there  were  said  to  have  been  many  generally  quiet  and 
respectable  workingmen.  Such  were  the  leaders  who  were  de- 
termined "to  uphold  the  majesty  of  the  law."  Nevertheless,  in 
the  next  few  days,  immediately  after  the  mob's  work,  it  was 
difficult  to  find  many  persons  who  wholly  discountenanced  the 
illegal  proceedings.  The  universal  excuse  given  in  justification 
of  the  mob's  action  was  the  failure  of  the  courts  to  perform  their 
proper  duties  in  dispensing  justice.  Clark  County  has  never 
sentenced  any  criminal  to  death,  and  it  has  been  a  common  remark 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  find  any  criminal  guilty  of  murder 
in  the  first  degree.  There  is  an  element  of  justice  also  in  the 
criticism  that  the  city  police  court  has  been  for  a  long  time  a 
travesty  on  justice;  but  few  people  placed  the  blame  for  this  condi- 
tion where  it  belonged,  namely,  with  themselves.  These  same 
conditions  were  present  a  year  ago,  and  yet  the  people  voted  last 
spring  for  the  continuance  of  just  such  conditions.  While  the  city 
was  still  under  martial  law  the  police  authorities,  influenced  by 
the  spasm  of  reform  sweeping  over  the  city,  cleared  out  various 
negro  "dens"  and  brothels  in  places  which  the  mob  had  threatened 
to  burn.  Judging  from  the  attitude  of  the  people  at  that  time, 


CLARK   COUNTY,   OHIO.  113 

one  would  have  thought  that  at  last  a  first  lesson  in  civic  right- 
eousness had  been  thoroughly  learned,  and  yet  after  the  passing 
of  only  one  month  since  the  nights  of  violence,  some  of  these 
saloons  have  been  granted  licenses  to  resume  business,  and  no 
comments  have  been  made,  save  by  one  newspaper  which  in  a 
recent  editorial  rebukes  the  people  for  their  lukewarmness  in 
reform.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  there  are  none  who  condemn 
such  acts  as  those  of  the  mob,  for  there  are  many  who  are  out- 
spoken for  reform.  The  county  prosecutor  has  been  very  active 
in  seeking  to  bring  the  leaders  of  the  mob  to  justice,  and  several 
true  bills  have  been  returned  by  the  grand  jury,  but  public  senti- 
ment does  not  seem  to  be  with  the  prosecutor  to  any  great  degree. 
As  has  been  said  before,  civic  pride  has  scarcely  yet  risen  above 
pride  in  material  surroundings.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  all 
the  people  belong  to  the  lowest  sociality  class ;  but  that  the  mode, 
the  prevailing  number,  are  still  narrow  in  sentiments  and  opinions, 
and  individualistic  to  a  high  degree.  They  are  quick  to  feel, 
good-hearted,  ready  to  sympathize  and  to  help,  but  they  lack  that 
broader  sympathy  which  results  in  the  individual  becoming  com- 
pletely socialized. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  number  in  the  higher  sociality  classes 
is  surely  growing.  For  example,  the  Brannock  Local  Option  Bill, 
at  present  before  the  Ohio  legislature,  meets  with  growing  favor 
here.  Another  example  of  a  growing  interest  in  higher  things 
is  in  the  series  of  university  extension  lectures  on  municipal 
affairs  which  were  largely  attended.  One  cannot  believe  that  con- 
ditions here  are  much,  if  any,  worse  than  in  the  average  American 
city ;  nevertheless,  the  growth  of  broader  ideas  and  higher  ideals 
of  society  and  the  social  welfare  is  painfully  slow.  Indeed  it  is 
a  far  cry  yet  to  the  time  when  this  people  shall  say  with  the  ghost 
of  Marley,  "My  business  ?  My  business  is  humanity." 


VITA 

The  writer  was  born  in  Springfield,  Ohio,  February  7,  1872. 
He  received  his  primary  education  in  the  public  schools  of  that 
city;  entered  Wittenberg  College  in  1889,  and  was  graduated  with 
the  degree  A.  B.  in  1893.  The  academic  year  1895-96  was  spent 
in  the  Yale  Divinity  School.  Since  1897  he  has  been  an  instructor 
in  the  department  of  Civics  and  Economics  in  the  Springfield, 
Ohio,  High-school.  His  graduate  work  was  done  in  Wittenberg 
College  1899-1901,  where  he  received  the  Ph.  D.  degree;  and  in 
Columbia  University  1902-1903,  in  the  department  of  Sociology, 
Economics  and  American  History. 


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